Part II. In the 60s many psychiatrists believed that criminal behavior was lodged in certain parts of the brain

In the 60s many psychiatrists believed that criminal behavior was lodged in certain parts of the brain, and lobotomies were frequently done on prisoners.

With new advances in medical technology, the search for biological causes of criminal behavior became more sophisticated. In 1986 psychologist Robert Hare identified a connection between certain brain activity and antisocial behavior. He found that criminals experienced less brain reaction to dangerous situations than most people. Such a brain function, he believed, could lead to greater risk-taking in life, with some criminals not fearing punishment as much as others.

Studies related to brain activity and crime continued into the early twenty-first century. Testing with advanced instruments probed the inner workings of the brain. With techniques called computerized tomography (CT scans), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET), researchers searched for links between brain activity and a tendency to commit crime. Each of these tests can reveal brain activity.

Research on brain activity investigated the role of neurochemicals, substances the brain releases to trigger body activity, and hormones in influencing criminal behavior. Studies indicated that increased levels of some neurochemicals, such as serotonin, decreases aggression. Serotonin is a substance produced by the central nervous system that has broad sweeping affect on the emotional state of the individual. In contrast higher levels of others, such as dopamine, increases aggression. Dopamine is produced by the brain and affects hart rate and blood pressure. Researchers expected to find that persons who committed violent crimes have reduced levels of serotonin and higher levels of dopamine. This condition would have led to periods of greater activity including aggression if the person is prone to aggression.

In the early 21^st century researchers continued investigating the relationship between neurochemicals and antisocial behavior, yet connections proved complicated. Studies showed, for example, that even body size could influence the effects of neurochemicals and behavior.

Researchers also looked at relationship between hormones (bodily substances that affect how organs in the body function), such as testosterone and cortisol, and criminal behavior. Testosterone is a sex hormone produced by male sexual organs that cause development of masculine body traits. Cortisol is a hormone produced by adrenal glands located next to the kidneys that effects how quickly food is processed by the digestive system. Higher cortisol levels lead to more glucose to the brain for greater energy, such as in times of stress or danger. Animal studies showed a strong link between high level of testosterone and aggressive behavior. Testosterone measurements in prison populations also showed relatively high levels in the inmates as compared to the US adult male population in general.

Studies of sex offenders in Germany showed that those who were treated to remove testosterone as part of their sentencing became repeat offenders only 3 percent of the time. This rate was in stark contrast to the usual 46 percent repeat rate. These and similar studies indicate testosterone can have a strong bearing on criminal behavior.

Cortisol is another hormone linked to criminal behavior. Research suggested that when the cortisol level is high a person’s attention is sharp and he or she is physically active. In contrast, researchers found low levels of cortisol were associated with short attention spans. Lower activity levels, and often linked to antisocial behavior including crime. Studies of violent adults have shown lower levels of cortisol; some believe this low level serves to numb an offender to the usual fear associated with committing a crime and possibly getting caught.

Studies by such 20^th century investigators as the American criminologist Bernard Gluck and the British psychiatrist William Healy indicated that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is psychotic, neurotic, or emotionally unstable and another one-fourth is mentally deficient. These emotional and mental conditions don’t automatically make people criminals, but do, it is believed, make them more prone to criminality. Recent studies of criminals have thrown further light on the kinds of emotional disturbances that may lead to criminal behavior.

It is difficult to isolate brain activity from social and psychological factors, as well as the effects of substance abuse, parental relations, and education. Yet since some criminals are driven by factors largely out of their control, punishment will not be an effective deterrent, help and treatment become the primary responses.

Answer the following questions:

1) Explain the psychiatric theory of the causes of crime.

2) Why aren’t some criminals afraid of punishment as much as law-obiding people?

3) How was inner working of the brain tested?

4) What was the role of neurochemicals in the brain activity?

5) Do emotional and mental conditions automatically make people criminals?

TASK 28. Replace words and word combinations in brackets by their English equivalents from the text above.

1. In the 60s many psychiatrists believed that criminal behavior (расположено в центральных частях мозга). 2. (С развитием медицинских технологий) th search for biological causes of criminal behavior became more (усложненными). 3. In 1986 psycologist Robert Hare (определил связь между определенной мозговой деятельностью и антисоциальным поведением). 4. Research on brain activity investigated the role of neurochemicals (веществ, вырабатываемых мозгом для запуска телесной деятельности) and hormones (и их влияние на преступное поведение). 5. Studies indicated that increased levels of some neurochemicals, such as serotonin, (понижает агрессию). 6. In contrast higher levels of others, such as dopamine, (увеличивает агрессию). 7. This condition would have led to periods of greater activity including aggression if the person is (склонен к агрессии). 8. Researchers also looked at relationship between hormones (телесные вещества, воздействующие на функционирование органов тела). 9. (Исследования на животных) showed (сильную связь между высоким уровнем тестостерона и агрессивным поведением). 10. Studies of the 20^th century investigators (определили) that about one-fourth of a typical convict population is (психически, нервно или эмоционально нестабильными) and another one-fourth is (психически больными). 11. These emotional and mental conditions (не делают автомвтически людей преступниками), but do, it is believed, make them (более склонными к преступности). 12. (Поскольку преступниками движут факторы, не поддающиеся их контролю), punishment will not be (эффективным сдерживающим средством).

TASK 29. Translate the following text into Russian in written form. Answer the questions after the text.