Describe the council-manager form of government according to Figure 4

6. Why is the commission form the least common form of municipal government?

TASK 3. Translate from Russian into English:

1. Муниципалитеты — органы управления большинства американских городов и остальных населенных пунктов.

2. В муниципалитетах, большинство из которых входит в состав округов, проживает более 2/3 населения США.

3. Модель «совет-менеджер» имеет приоритет главным образом в муниципалитетах, на территории которых проживают обеспеченные люди, согласные хорошо платить компетентному профессионалу - менеджеру.

4. В модели «мэр-совет» прямые выборы мэра способствуют тому, что он чувствует себя независимым от совета, и это в определенной степени позволяет ему определять местную политику.

5. «Сильный» мэр сам назначает и увольняет руководителей отраслевых и функциональных подразделений муниципального административного аппарата, не нуждаясь для этого в одобрении совета.

6. В настоящее время модель «совет - слабый мэр» существует в первоначальном виде в основном в небольших поселениях - примерно в двух третях городов США с населением от 5 до 10 тыс. человек.

7. Комиссионная система управления является наименее популярной моделью местного управления. При этой модели местного управления население избирает обычно на четыре года муниципальный совет, состоящий из трех - пяти человек.

8. «Комиссионная» модель управления критикуется американскими специалистами за то, что она не позволяет провести принцип «разделения властей» и поэтому недемократична.

TEXT 4: NEW ENGLAND TOWNS

As you know, one type of municipality is the town. There is another kind of town, however, that is quite different from municipal town government. This local government is the New England town.

New England towns are among the oldest local governments in the United States. The first New England towns were settled during colonial times. In these years, the town included a settlement plus its surrounding rural territory. When danger struck, residents living in rural areas could go to the settlement for protection. The New England town government that developed thus included citizens from both urban and rural areas.

The most unique feature of the New England town, however, was its form of government. This still is true today. Tradi­tional New England towns are among the few governments that still practice direct democra­cy. A direct democracy, you remember, is one in which the people themselves lead the government, rather than electing representa­tives to do this for them.

In traditional New England towns, citi­zens lead the government by taking part in town meetings. These are meetings in which voters decide town policy, pass laws, and vote on business matters important to the town. The townspeople, for example, may consider issues such as whether to raise taxes, repair a certain road, or replace the streetlights.

Town meetings usually are held once a year. At each annual meeting, the citizens elect a board of selectmen. It is the duty of these men and women to carry out town business between town meetings. Other offi­cials elected might include a clerk, a treasurer, and a police chief. This traditional form of town government still is used in some New England towns today. Over the years, however, population growth and increased demands for local services have made the direct democracy of the town meeting less practical. As a result, many towns have turned to a representative town meeting. In this form, the citizens elect people to represent them at the town meetings. The townspeople themselves still can attend and take part in the town meetings if they wish.

In other towns, the citizens have discontinued town meetings altogether and have hired town managers to lead their governments. The managers carry out duties similar to those of county or city managers. New England towns such as Freeport, Maine, and Watertown, Massachusetts, are among several to adopt such a plan.

Comprehension questions:

1. What is the most unique feature of the New England town?

2. In what way do citizens in traditional New England towns lead the government?

3. Who carries out town business between town meetings?

4. What is a representative town meeting?

TEXT 5: TOWNSHIPS

Townships are small units of local government that provide services for the people of a certain area. Although smaller than most counties, townships are in some ways similar to county governments. Like counties, townships first were formed to govern rural areas. They carried out certain services, and soon became the center of economic and political life for many settlers. These early townships were found in the states of Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. Townships also were formed in the Midwest, but in a different way. To encourage pioneer settlement, the Land Ordinance of 1785 was passed. This law divided unsettled areas into six-mile (9.6-kilometer) squares. These squares were called townships. Each township was further divided for sale to settlers. At first, the townships were geographic areas, rather than government units. Eventually, however, many townships decided on a plan of government. These became local governments recognized by the state.

Today, townships are found in 16 states. They carry out a variety of services. Among these are road repair, public safety, and health and welfare services. Over the years, however, county governments have assumed many of these duties. Many townships, in fact, have become subdivisions of a county. Municipalities, too, have taken over much of the work of townships, some even annexing township lands. As a result, townships in many areas have become less important, providing fewer and fewer services.

This is not the case everywhere, however. Some townships, especially those that are heavily populated, have developed into urban areas. These have taken on many of the powers and duties of municipalities. Such townships arc found in Michigan, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Townships usually are governed by a board known as the board of trustees. In some areas, this board is called the board of supervisors. It is the board's responsibility to prepare the budget. The board also makes and carries out local laws. Members of the board are elected by the people of the township. Other township leaders chosen by the people may include a clerk, treasurer, and justice of the peace.

Comprehension questions:

1. What are townships?

2. What services do townships carry out?

3. How are townships usually governed?

4. What are responsibilities of the board of trustees?

TASK 4. Translate from Russian into English:

1. К числу органов местного управления относятся: округа, города и пригороды, муниципалитеты, школьные и особые округа.

2. Большинство городов, в том числе крупнейшие, управляются мэрами и городскими советами.

3. "Настоящий Чикаго", простирается более чем на 2 штата, 6 округов, 10 таунов, 30 городов, 49 тауншипов, и 110 деревень.

4. Города, поселки и деревни – относительно небольшие территориально-административные единицы, однако их органы управления обладают значительной полнотой власти и влияния на повседневную жизнь граждан, живущих в границах этих населенных пунктов.

5. В компетенцию городов и поселков входят многие сферы общественной жизни, например: время работы магазинов, ремонт дорог и улиц, градостроительный надзор и др.

TEXT 6: SPECIAL DISTRICTS

As described by its name, special districts are local governments formed for a special purpose. Most carry out a service desired by citizens yet not provided by other area governments. Among these are flood control and fire protection. Soil and water conservation, waste disposal, and sanitation also are handled by these governments. Special districts operate tunnels and bridges and repair highways. Others deal with schools, libraries, parks, airports, hospitals, and cemeteries.' Taken together, special districts meet as many, if not more, citizen needs than any other kind of government.

Because of the variety of services they carry out, special districts are by far the most numerous of all governments in the United States. There are 43,439 special districts across the country today.

Special districts vary in size and shape. Some are quite small. Many follow the boundaries of other local governments. A fire district, for example, may serve a single township. Other special districts, however, are huge, overlapping the borders of several other units of government. A district board governs most special districts. In many areas, the members of the board are elected by the voters. Some boards, however, are chosen by a leader from another unit of government, such as a mayor. To pay for the services it carries out, the district board may levy a tax, borrow money, or charge a fee to those citizens receiving the service. The special district with which all people probably are the most familiar is the school district. Educational services in some states are provided by counties, municipalities, towns, or townships. In more than one half of the states, however, public education is handled by separate governments known as school districts.

It is important to remember that school districts, like all local governments, are granted authority by a state. For this reason, many school district policies are shaped by state guidelines. The length of the school year and the kinds of courses needed for graduation, for example, usually are decided by state law.

Within state guidelines, however, each school district is governed by a local board of education. In some areas, this board is known as the board of supervisors or board of directors. Most school boards are elected by the citizens. Some boards, however, are appointed. Appointment may be made by mayors, city councils, county boards, or other leaders as decided by state or local law.

To run a school system, school boards have the power to hire teachers, direct the curriculum, maintain school buildings, and provide for transportation. In order to carry out these services, the board may tax citizens to raise needed funds.

Most school boards' hire a superintendent to lead the district. The superintendent often has a large staff to help administer the schools. Also important to the leadership of the schools are teacher organizations and community and civic groups interested in education. Unlike other special districts, the number of school districts has dropped in recent years. In 1952, there were over 67,000 school districts in the United States. Today, there are less than 15,000. The reason for this decline is school consolidation, or merger. This comes about when two or more school districts are combined to form a single, larger district. Such plans can result in great savings.

Comprehension questions:

1. What are special districts?

2. What services do they carry out?

3. Why are special districts the most numerous of all governments in the USA?