Memorize the following words and word combinations. Use them in the sentences. Pay attention to the prepositions

Explore,

to enable,

to grasp

in rows and columns

to require

concise

frequency

total (number)

to occur

to cause

to include in

source

to allow

3. Read and translate the following sentences:

1. The best way to explore the countryside is on foot. Let's explore this issue/idea more fully. 2. Computerization should enable us to cut production costs by half. 3. We must grasp every opportunity to strengthen economic ties with other countries. 4. She's been voted Best Actress three years in a row. Add the column of figures and divide the sum by three. 5. Skiing at 80 miles per hour requires total concentration. 5. Make your answers clear and concise. 6. Complaints about the frequency of trains rose by 201% in the last year. It's not the duration of his absences from work so much as the frequency that worries me. 7. At that time of day, cars with only one occupant accounted for almost 80% of the total. A total of 21 horses were entered for the race. We made £700 in total, over three days of trading. 8. An accident involving over ten vehicles has occurred in the east-bound lane. If any of these symptoms occur while you are taking the medicine, consult your doctor immediately. 9. The difficult driving conditions caused several accidents. The bright light caused her to blink. Most heart attacks are caused by blood clots. I hope the children haven't caused you too much trouble. 10. The bill includes tax and service. Your responsibilities will include making appointments on my behalf. 11. Experts are trying to track down the source of the contamination in the water supply. We walked up the river to its source in the hills. Money is often a source of tension and disagreements in young married couples. 12. You 're not allowed to talk during the exam. Her proposals would allow more people to stay in full-time education. Pets aren't allowed in this hotel. He didn't allow us enough time to finish the test. At the weekend I allow myself a box of chocolates. How much time do you allow yourself to get ready in the morning?

4. Read and translate the text:

The main reasons why you should be using tables and graphs to display your data are:

• (in the early stages of statistical analysis) to explore and to understand the data;
• (when preparing a report or a presentation) to make your points clearly.

Tables and graphs will enable you to describe, compare and contrast variables, show relationships between variables, and present in a ‘picture’ what would take a great many words to describe. In general, categorical and numerical data use different tables and graphs.

Tables present information in rows and columns, and should be used when you want to summarise information so that specific values can be grasped quickly and easily. Besides ‘normal’ tables that don’t require any calculations other than percentages, there are others which produce the results of statistical tests in a comprehensible and concise way.

A frequency table or frequency distribution summarises the number of cases in each category for a variable. This table is very helpful when you are starting out to examine your data. It gives the total number (and, if calculated, the percentage) of times each category or value occurs (the frequency with which it occurs). This is often represented by statisticians by the lower-case letter f, whilst the lower-case letter x is used to represent all the individual data values of a variable.

Cross-tabulations or cross-classification tables are used when you need to present a table that summarises more than one variable at the same time. In these two-way tables, the categories of one of the variables form the rows and the categories of the other variable form the columns. When you interpret your cross-tabulation, remember that while the one variable doesn’t cause the other, the table does show the relationship between the two variables.

Before this type of table could be included in a report or presentation, it would be important to use more easily understandable names for each of the variables, replace the codes for each variable with their labels, add a title and state the source of the data the table contains. As a rule of thumb, your table should be clear enough to allow it to be understood without having to read any of your text!

There are a wide range of graphs available. However, only some of these are suitable for presenting categorical data. Those most frequently used are summarised in Table 11.1 along with when to use them. Those shaded in Table 11.1 are the ones you are most likely to use. You will probably have little use for those graphs not shaded.