The Legislature and Executive

The characteristic function of all legislatures is the making of law. In most systems, however, legislatures also have other tasks, such as selection and criticism of the government, supervision of administration, (1) ____________ of funds, (2) ____________ of treaties, (3) ___________ of executive and judicial officials, acceptance or refusal of executive (4) _____________, (5) ____________ of election procedures, and public hearings on petitions. (6) ______________, then, are not simply lawmaking bodies. Neither do they monopolize the function of making law.

In most systems the (7) ____________ has a power of veto over legislation, and, even where this is lacking, the (8) ____________ may exercise original or delegated powers of legislation. Judges, also, often share in the (9) ___________ process, through the interpretation and application of (10) _____________ or, as in the U.S. system, by means of (11) ___________ review of legislation. Similarly, administrative officials exercise (12) __________________ powers in making rules and deciding cases that come before administrative tribunals.

Legislatures differ strikingly in their size, the procedures they employ, the role of political parties in legislative action, and their vitality as representative bodies. In size, the British House of Commons is among the largest; the Icelandic lower house, the New Zealand House of Representatives, and the Senate of Nevada are among the smallest. Most legislatures are (13) ___________, although New Zealand, Denmark, the state of Queensland, in Australia, and Nebraska, in the United States, have all abolished their second chambers. The procedures of the United States House of Representatives, which derive from a manual of procedure written by Thomas Jefferson, are among the most (14) ____________ of parliamentary rules, requiring study and careful observation over a considerable period before members become proficient in their manipulation. Voting procedures range from the formal procession of the division or teller vote in the British House of Commons to the electric voting methods employed in the California legislature and in some other American states.

Another point of difference among legislatures concerns their (15) ____________ (16) _____________. These are sometimes officials who stand above party and, like the speaker of the British House of Commons, exercise a neutral function as parliamentary (17) ______________; sometimes they are the leaders of the majority party and, like the speaker of the United States House of Representatives, major political figures; and sometimes they are officials who, like the vice president of the United States in his role as presiding officer of the Senate, exercise a vote to break ties and otherwise perform mainly ceremonial functions.

Legislative parties are of various types and play a number of roles or functions. In the United States House of Representatives, for example, the party is responsible for assigning members to all standing committees; the party leadership fills the major parliamentary offices, and the party membership on committees reflects the proportion of seats held by the party in the House as a whole. The congressional party, however, is not disciplined to the degree found in British and some other European legislative parties, and there are relatively few “party line” votes in which all the members of one party vote against all the members of the other party. In the House of Commons, (18) ___________ voting is general; indeed, it is very unusual to find members voting against their party leadership, and, when they do, they must reckon with the possibility of penalties such as the (19) “___________________________” or the loss of their official status as party members.

It is often said that the 20th century has dealt harshly with legislatures and that this is an age of executive (20) ______________. Certainly, executives in most countries have assumed an increasingly large role in the making of law, through the initiation of the legislation that comes before parliaments, assemblies, and congresses, through the exercise of various rule-making functions, and as a result of the growth of different types of delegated legislation. It is also true that executives have come to predominate in the sphere of foreign affairs and, by such devices as executive agreements, which are frequently used in place of treaties, have freed themselves from dependence upon legislative approval of important foreign-policy initiatives. Moreover, devices such as the executive budget and the rise of specialized (21) ___________ agencies in the executive division have threatened the traditional fiscal controls of legislatures. This decline in legislative power, however, is not universal. The United States Congress, for example, has preserved a substantial measure of its power. Indeed, congressional oversight of the bureaucracy is an area in which it has added to its power and has developed new techniques for controlling the executive. The difficulties of presidents in the late 20th century with legislative programs of foreign aid and the (22) ______________ congressional criticism of executive policies in foreign affairs also suggest that Congress continues to play a vital role in the governing process.