The article

1) What are the meanings ascribed to ‘the’? – these are the meanings of the category of determination: definiteness, individualization, identification, limitation.

2) What are the meanings ascribed to ‘a’? – these are the meanings of the category of determination: classifying generalization, indefiniteness, oneness, possession of shape, indivisibility, integrity, countability.

3) What are the meanings ascribed to the zero article? – these are the meanings of the category of determination: generalization (relative:: absolute), amorphousness, divisibility, uncountability.

4) Grammarians ascribe to the indefinite article ‘a’ the functions of indefiniteness, classifying, classifying generalization, nominating, oneness. В.Я. Плоткин believes that ‘a’ is not an article, that it does not express indefiniteness, that it expresses integrity\indivisibility, oneness, countability and having a shape. What does it mean?

It means that if a noun is used with ‘a’ it shows:

- that the object denoted by the noun is presented by the speaker as one of the class of the objects of the same class;

- that the noun only nominates the object without separating it from the rest of the nouns – simply as one of the class of the objects of the same class;

- that the object is taken in its singular number (we can substitute ‘a’ for ‘one’).

According to В.Я. Плоткин, if a noun is used with ‘a’ it shows:

- that the object denoted by the noun is taken in its singular number (we can substitute ‘a’ for ‘one’);

- that the object can be counted (two stones, three stones);

- that the object is presented as a thing which has a definite shape and cannot be divided into parts – it it were divided into parts it would disappear. For example, a stone means a separate thing; a computer also denotes a separate thing (integrity\indivisibility) with its own shape.

5) Can we speak about the presence of the zero article in such combinations as by heart, at dawn, at noon, at night, at sunrise, on deck, in bed? – No, we cannot. The zero article is such an absence of the article when it is not a set-expression. The zero article is such an absence of the article when the speaker can use an article but he omits it in order to express generalization (it is the meaning of the zero article).

In the combinations by heart, at dawn, at noon, at night, at sunrise, on deck, in bed we cannot use articles: they are set-expressions, idomatic phrases.

For example: Children like ice-cream. Neither ‘children’ nor ‘ice-cream’ have any article, because they express the meaning of generalization: ‘children’ denotes chidlren in general (not particluar chidlren); ‘ice-cream’ denotes ice-cream in general (not particluar ice-cream). But in other contexts the words ‘children’ and ‘ice-cream’ may have articles: The children whom I know; the ice-cream which you gave me.

VERB

1) What are the categories of the verb? – of person, number, tense, mood, voice, development and retrospective coordination.

2) What is the similarity what is the difference between the meanings of the active voice form and of the medial\ middle voice?

The verb expressing the active voice meaning is used in a sentence in which the subject of the sentence denotes the doer of the action. E.g.: Henry died last year. In such a sentence there may be an object to the verb: Henry married Jane last year.

The verb expressing the medial\ middle voice has the same form as the verb expressing the active voice meaning. But actually the subject of such a sentence does not denote the doer of the action. E.g.: The concert began. The book sells well. The door did not open.

3) What is the similarity what is the difference between the meanings of the active voice form and of the reflexive voice?

The verb expressing the active voice meaning is used in a sentence in which the subject of the sentence denotes the doer of the action. E.g.: Henry died last year. In such a sentence there may be an object to the verb: Henry married Jane last year.

The verb expressing the reflexive voice has the same form as the verb expressing the active voice meaning. But the subject of such a sentence denotes both the doer of the action and the object of the action because the doer is at the same the object of the action and it is proved by the pronoun ‘oneself’: She washed. -> She washed herself. He shaved.-> He shaved himself. They dressed. -> They dressed themselves.

4) What is similar and what is different between the meanings of the active voice form and of the reciprocal voice?

The verb expressing the active voice meaning is used in a sentence in which the subject of the sentence denotes the doer of the action. E.g.: Henry died last year. In such a sentence there may be an object to the verb: Henry married Jane last year.

The verb expressing the reciprocal voice has the same form as the verb expressing the active voice meaning. But the subject of such a sentence denotes more than one person and these persons are simultaneuosly doers of the action and the objects ot it. It is proved by the fact that we can insert in such sentences the pronouns each other or one another. E.g.: Ted and Jane met in the park. They kissed and embraced. The children quarelled a lot. Ted and Tom fought every day.

5) What unites constructions of primary predication and constructions of secondary predication?

Both types of the constructions have as their core basic element the subject-predicate pair (the predicative axis = the predicative line), i.e. they both consist of the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE. The subject and the predicate are related by the relation, which is called the PREDICATIVE relation. The word ‘predicative’ comes from the word ‘predication’ which means a mental act of ascribing some PROPERTY to the BEARER of this property. The property which is ascribed is expressed by the VERB. The verb may be either FINITE or NON-FINITE. E.g.:

I want to help you (‘want’ is a finite verbal form) – this is a construction of primary predication.

I want you to help him (‘to help’ is a non-finite verbal form) – in this sentence there are two predicative constructions: ‘ I want ’ is a construction of primary predication; ‘ you to help ’ is a construction of secondary predication.

The subject [подлежащее] of the construction of primary predication is called the primary subject. The subject [подлежащее] of the construction of secondary predication is called the secondary subject.

The predicate [сказуемое] of the construction of primary predication is called the primary predicate. The predicate of the construction of secondary predication is called the secondary predicate.

In both types the predicate express the property (action or state) ascribed [приписываемый] to the subject as the bearer [носитель] of this property.

In both types of constructions the predicate is a verb, because it is a verb that expresses an action or a state and ascribes it to the bearer (the subject).

Verbs are represented by two classes of forms: finite and non-finite [личные и неличные].

FINITE verbal forms act as predicates of constructions of primary predication. E.g. The boy broke his leg.

NON-FINITE verbal forms act as predicates of constructions of secondary predication.

NON-FINITE verbal forms include:

- participle one

- participle two

- the gerund

- the infinitive

Constructions of primary predication can act as:

- separate individual sentences. E.g. The students went home.

- clauses [придаточные предложения]. E.g. The train stopped and the passengers went out. I know that Ted is ill.

Constructions of secondary predication can NOT act as separate individual sentences or as clauses. They are always parts of semi-complex or semi-compound sentences, i.e. they are always related to a construction of primary predication. E.g. I saw [construction of primary predication] you crossing the street [construction of secondary predication].

Constructions of secondary predication can have as their PREDICATE the following non-finite verbal forms: