Language

TYPES OF GRAMMAR

1) What is the difference between prescriptive\ normative and classical scientific grammar? - The prescriptive\ normative grammar prescribes the RULES, prescribes the NORMS of speaking and writing. The classical scientific grammar was started by the British linguist Henry Sweet in the late 19^th century. It does NOT prescribe norms and rules of speaking and writing. The classical scientific grammar describes the language as it FUNCTIONS.

LANGUAGE

1) What are the characteristic features of the language and speech? – Language is stable, long-lasting, social. It is a potential. Speech is changing, momentary, individual. It is the realization of the potential.

2) What are the basic units of language? – The phoneme (the phonemic\phonological level), the morpheme (the morphemic level), the word (the lexical level), the phrase (the phrasemic level), the sentence (the proposemic level), the text.

3) Give the definitions of the basic units of language.

The phoneme is the smallest distinctive language unit. It distinguishes one word from another. For example, we can remove a phoneme and the remaining chain of phonemes will have a different meaning – it will be a different word: /` p leit/ - /`leit/: ‘ p late’:: ‘late’. The same can be said about an addition of a phoneme: /`sai/ - /`sai n /: ‘sigh’:: ‘sign’. The same can be said about a substitution for another phoneme: /l æ d/ - /l i: d/: ‘lad’:: ‘lead’.

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. According to the meaning, morphemes are classified into lexical (roots), grammatical and lexico-grammatical.

The word is the smallest nominative language unit. Words serve as labels for extralinguistic phenomena (objects, processes, qualities, other phenomena).

There is no definition for the phrase as the smallest language unit with some specific functions. That’s why not all grammarians distinguish the phrase as a basic unit of language.

The sentence is the smallest predicative language unit. The term ‘predicative’ means that we deal with a structure consisting of the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE. Any sentence has the subject-predicate line\ axis as its core, that is why the sentence is a predicative unit. The subject denotes a person, or thing, or phenomenon, or situation as the starting point of the development of the thought. The predicate says something about the person, thing, phenomenon, situation denoted by the subject; it ascribes some property to this person, thing, phenomenon, or situation.

The sentence performs minimum TWO functions:

- names a situation and

- shows how the situation is related to the reality.

The first function is called referential.

The second function is called predicative.

The term ‘predicative’ means that a sentence shows how the described situation is related to the reality. In other words, a sentence shows:

(a) the time when the situation occurred, will occur or is occurring;

(b) whether the situation is presented as a fact of reality (= real) or as something unreal, desirable, problematic, possible, etc.;

(c) whether the doer of the action is:

- the speaker,

- or the addressee,

- or neither the speaker nor the addressee but somebody who is not taking part in the act of communication.

The first aspect (time) is designated by the term ‘ tense ’.

The second aspect (real\ unreal) is designated by the term ‘ mood ’.

The third aspect (the doer of the action) is designated by the term ‘ person ’.

So, these three grammatical meanings are considered to be COMPONENTS OF PREDICATIVITY:

(a) the tense component (because extralinguistic time is reflected by the grammatical category of tense);

(b) the mood component (because the real or unreal character of the action is reflected by the grammatical category of mood);

(c) the person component (because:

- if the doer of the action is the speaker, grammarians say that the meaning of the first person is expressed – it is done by the personal pronouns ‘I’ or ‘we’;

- if the doer of the action is the addressee, grammarians say that the meaning of the second person is expressed – it is done by the personal pronoun ‘you’;

- if the doer of the action is neither the speaker nor the addressee, grammarians say that the meaning of the third person is expressed - it is done either by nouns or by the personal pronouns ‘he’, ‘she’ or ‘it’).

Thus, predicativity is considered to be the basic feature of the sentence.

Predicativity is mainly expressed by the subject (the person component) and the predicate (the tense and mood components) – that’s why the subject and the predicate are called the main (principal) parts of the sentence: they express the main (principal) feature of the sentence.

But predicativity is expressed even if the sentence contains NO subject or predicate.

The person component in the sentences WITHOUT THE SUBJECT (Go home) is understood from the fact that the sentence expresses an inducement directed to the addressee – ‘you’.

The tense component in a sentences WITHOUT THE PREDICATE (Night) is understood from the tense paradigm of the sentence: Night. – It was night. – It will be night. (This paradigm is kept by the speaker in mind and (s)he subconsciously recalls it and does the necessary analysis). The unmarked member expresses the meaning of the present tense.

The mood component in a sentence WITHOUT THE PREDICATE (Night) is understood from the mood paradigm of the sentence: Night. – It would be night. – If it were night. (This paradigm is kept by the speaker in mind and (s)he subconsciously recalls it and does the necessary analysis). The unmarked member expresses the meaning of the indicative mood.

4) What is a linguistic sign? – It is a two-fold language unit which is characterized by form (the plane of expression) and meaning (the plane of content). We can refer to linguistic signs such as units as morphemes, words, sentences. Some grammarians refer phonemes to the set of linguistic signs, but others do not share this approach as phonemes convey no meaning.

Words are signs of things (nouns), actions (verbs), properties of things (adjectives), and properties of actions (adverbs).

Sentences are signs of situations.

5) Is the sentence a linguistic sign? – Yes, it is. A linguistic sign is a two-fold unit consisting of the plane of expression (= the sound-from) and the plane of content (= the meaning). A sentence is a sign of a situation. It means that a sentence conveys\renders certain information about a situation – first of all it is the information about the structure of the situation, in other words the information about the ROLES performed by participants which are involved into the process (the process or state is the basis of any situation).

In inflectional languages CASE forms show these roles. For example, if the noun takes the form of the nominative case (девушка), we understand that the object denoted by this form acts as the agent in the described situation: Девушка вошла в комнату. If the same noun takes the form of the accusative case, we understand that the object denoted by this form acts as the passive recipient of the action: Я увидел девушку. The form of the dative case signifies that the object denoted by this form acts as the addressee of the action: Я улыбнулся девушке. The form of the genitive case signifies that the object denoted by this form acts as the possessor: Это родители девушки.

MORPH

1) What is the difference between the morph and the morpheme?

The notion of the morph was suggested in the descriptive grammar (USA). The morph is a meaningful part of an actual word. The morpheme is an abstract unit, it’s an abstraction from a set of morphs, it’s a class of morphs – of allomorphs, to be exact. The morphs are united into one morpheme by the common meaning. For example, the abstract morpheme of the noun’s plurality is represented by the morphs /s/, /z/, /iz/, -en, -a, ae (cat s, dog s, watch es, ox en, dat a, formul ae).

2) Why did descriptivists introduce the notion (понятие) of ‘morph’ into the practice of the morphological analysis?

The notion of the morph correlates with the notion of the morpheme. It is shown, for example, by the fact that the words ‘morph’ and ‘morpheme’ have the same root ‘ morph- ’.

The notion of the morpheme was suggested by the Russian linguist Beaudoin de Courtenay in the nineteenth century. This term (‘morpheme’) denotes a minimal (smallest) meaningful part of a word. For example: gentle-man; teach-er-s.

Why was the notion of the morph introduced into the practice of the morphological analysis? Why did descriptivists feel the need to add the notion of the morph to the notion of the morpheme? It happened because the notion of the morpheme did not help to describe all the cases.

There may be forms of the one and the same word which contain one and the same root morpheme, but this root morpheme is represented by sequences of phonemes which are NOT completely alike. For example:

1. The forms knife and knives. It is evident that knife and knives are not two different words. They are the forms of the same word. They have the same root but this root is represented by the sequences of phonemes which have different final elements: [nai f ] and [nai v ]. Must we consider [nai f ] and [nai v ] DIFFERENT morphemes? No, we must not, because [nai f ] and [nai v ] have the same lexical meaning. In such a case [nai f ] and [nai v ] are considered to be MORPHS representing one and the same morpheme.

2. The words pleasure, please, pleasant have the same root, which is represented by the segments having the same meaning but differing in the sound structure: /pleʒ/, /pli:z/, /plez/. These meaningful segments of the concrete words are called morphs. They represent one and the same morpheme.

3. The forms dogs, cats, oxen, foxes have the endings expressing plurality: /s/, /z/, /ən/, /iz/. These endings express the same meaning but they differ in form. They are morphs representing one and the same morpheme.

Thus, the morpheme appears to be an abstraction from a number of morphs (a set of morphs, a class of morphs). Morphs are material segments of actual words, they possess both form and meaning. The morpheme unites these morphs, it appears to be a class of morphs.

The morphs which represent one and the same morpheme are of two kinds: allomorphs and free alternants [`ɔ:-] (variants of the morpheme).

Morphs are divided into THREE CLASSES (=types = kinds = varieties):

(a) morphs representing DIFFEENT morphemes (they are characterized by contrastive distribution);

(b) allomorphs (they are characterized by complementary distribution);

(c) free alternants (they are characterized by non-contrastive distribution).

Allomorphs are such morphs which have the same meaning, different form and are in complementary distribution to each other. To be ‘in complementary distribution’ means to be unable to replace each other in the same environment. For example, it is a mistake to pronounce /s/ instead of /z/ in the form ‘ dogs ’. For example:

- the morphs /`nai f / and /`nai v / in the forms ‘knife’ and ‘knives’ are allomorphs of the same root morpheme (= lexical morpheme) [naïf/naiv]: they have the same meaning, different form and their distribution is complementary. They are phonologically conditioned allomorphs.

- the morphs /s/, /z/, /iz/, -en, -a, -ae are allomorphs of the same grammatical morpheme expressing the meaning of the plural number of nouns: they have the same meaning, different form and their distribution is complementary. The morphs /s/, /z/, /iz/, -en, -a, -ae are phonologically conditioned allomorphs, -en, -a, -ae are morphologically conditioned allomorphs;

Free alternants are such morphs which have the same meaning, different form and are not in complementary distribution to each other: they CAN substitute for each other in the same environment, their distribution is non-contrastive. For example: the morphs /t/ and /d/ in the forms ‘learn ed ’ [`lə:n d ] and ‘learn t ’ [`lə:n t ] are free alternants = variants of the same morpheme: they have the same meaning, different form and their distribution is NON-CONTRASTIVE. It means that free alternants CAN REPLACE EACH OTHER and it will make no contrast. You may remove /d/ from ‘learn ed ’ [`lə:n d ] and insert /t/ instead of /d/ and this substitution will make no contrast because you will get ‘learn t ’ [`lə:n t ] and ‘learn t ’ means the same as ‘learn ed ’.

A distribution of the morph is the sum (=total) of the environments in which the given morph is used. For example, the morph of the noun’s plurality /z/ is pronounced:

- after /i:/ ‘knees’,

- after /ei/ ‘days’,

- after /ou/ ‘shows’,

- after /ai/ ‘ties’,

- after /b/ ‘sobs’,

- after /d/ ‘lads’,

- after /g/ ‘bags’,

- after /l/ ‘balls’,

- after /n/ ‘tins’.

So, the environments of the morph /z/ are /i:/, /ei/, /ou/, /ai/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /l/, /n/. The distribution of the morph /z/ is the abstraction from these concrete environments: it is represented by vowels and voiced consonants (with the exception of /z/, /ʤ/ - after them we pronounce /iz/: bridg es, cag es, marriag es, nois es, nos es, roses, hous es).

3) What is contrastive distribution?

‘Contrastive distribution’ characterizes morphs which belong to DIFFERENT MORPHEMES. This notion was first used in descriptive linguistics (USA).

‘Distribution’ is a linguistic notion describing the sum (= total) of environments in which the given morph is used.

‘Contrastive distribution’ means that if the given two morphs are used in the distribution of each other the meaning of the word will change. In other words, the replacement (=substitution) of one morph with another will makes contrast (it resembles the distinctive function of the phoneme: when you replace one phoneme with another the meaning of the word changes). For example, chair-s and table-s. The morphs table- and chair- both combine with the morph /z/ here. The lexical meanings of chair-s and table-s are different: these forms denote different objects (referents). This difference in meaning is done by the morphs table- and chair-, because the morph /z/ has the same meaning of plularity in both forms. As the morphs table- and chair- have different lexical meanings they are said to be in CONTRASTIVE distribution.

4) What types of morphemes do you know? - prefixes\ roots\ suffixes\ infixes\ superfixes; bound\ free; covert (zero)\ overt; continuous\ discontinuous; segmental\ suprasegmental; derivational (word-building)\ grammatical (form-building= functional).

5) What morpheme is called LEXICAL? A lexical morpheme is also called the ROOT. Such a morpheme expresses the lexical meaning. It means that it renders such type of information which allows us to understand what is the denotatum of the word. Denotatum = the object\ property\ action denoted by the word. For example, the denotatum of the noun ‘table’ is an object (or class of objects) with a horizontally positioned board supported by one\three\four legs used for having meals on it, or writing, or something else. So, the lexical morpheme gives us information about what is denoted by the word. The lexical morpheme is always present in a notional word (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs). There can’t be a notional word without a root = a lexical morpheme. In addition to it a word may contain a grammatical morpheme and\or lexico-grammatical morpheme(s).

6a) What morpheme is called LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL? These are suffixes, infixes and prefixes. They build new WORDS.

6b) What morpheme is called GRAMMATICAL? These are FORM-building morphemes. They express grammatical meanings – meanings of grammatical categories. For example, [z] in ‘ boy’s ’ expresses the meaning of the possessive case. [z] in ‘ boys ’ expresses the meaning of the plural number.

6c) What morpheme is called OVERT? It is a morpheme which is represented by a CONCRETE MATERIAL ENTITY (a sound or a combination of sounds). In writing such a morpheme is represented by a LETTER or a sequence of LETTERS. For example, [z] in ‘ boy’s ’ or [z] in ‘ boys ’. Or –en in childr en, ox en.

6d) What morpheme is called COVERT? It is a morpheme which is represented by a ZERO sign. That’s why such a morpheme is traditionally called a ZERO MORPHEME. It is a MEANINGFUL absence of a morph: the morph as absent but the meaning is expressed. Such the expression of the meaning is possible when we deal with declinable word, that is with a word that has a paradigm. In such a case some of the forms do NOT have any ending but through the absence of the ending a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. For example, the paradigm of the Russian noun ‘ стол ’ (in the singular number) contains SIX case forms:

- the nominative case

- the genitive case

- the dative case

- the accusative case

- the instrumental case

- the prepositional case

The meanings of the TWO cases out of these six ones are expressed by the absence of any ending: those of the NOMINATIVE case and the ACCUSATIVE case:

- СТОЛ

- СТОЛА

- СТОЛУ

- СТОЛ

- СТОЛОМ

- О СТОЛЕ

7) Can we say that such words as ‘and’, ‘happiness’, ‘must’ have a zero morph (a covert morph)? – No, we can’t say so. Because grammarians speak about the presence of a zero (=covert) morph (or you can say ‘morpheme’) in the structure of the form only in such cases, when the word has a paradigm (=a system of forms = a set of forms).

The zero morpheme is an abstraction. It’s the meaningful absence of any morph (morpheme). We can’t speak about the meaningful absence of the morph if we don’t have any opposition, any paradigm. The ‘meaningful absence of the morph’ means that one form of the word exists as a member of the paradigm, and, unlike the other members of the paradigm, expresses the grammatical meaning by the absence of any inflection. For example: стол, стол-а, стол-у, стол, стол-ом, стол-е. In this paradigm of the Russian ‘стол’, two meanings are expressed by zero morphs – the meanings of the nominative and accusative cases.

The words ‘and’, ‘happiness’, ‘must’ have no paradigms.

8) What is a superfix? What is a suprasegmental morpheme? - A superfix and a suprasegmental morpheme mean the same. They are a type of morpheme (the others are the prefix, the root, the suffix, the infix). The notion (понятие) of the ‘superfix’ was suggested by descriptivists. The prefix –super means ‘over’, ‘above’. It means that this kind of morpheme is not part of a word. Such a morpheme is represented as it were ‘over’, ‘above’ [ поверх ] a word. It is an unusual morpheme because a usual morpheme is part of a word.

What language means can be considered a superfix? It is such a means which, like any morpheme, makes up new words or new forms but is not part of a word. It is word accent = stress (ударение в слове). Compare:

- the prefix re- is a derivation morpheme: it builds new words; e.g.: write means “to put down information using a pen”; re write means “to put down information a second or a third time”;

- the suffix –ness is a derivation morpheme: it builds new words; e.g.: white means ‘a certain colour taken as an adjective’; white ness ‘a certain colour taken as a noun’;

- the infix [i:] replaces the vowel [ʌ] and builds up a new word: bl oo d means ‘liquid flowing in human vessels’, it’s a noun; bl ee d means ‘to lose blood’, it’s a verb.

Word accent = stress can also build up new words: `export (экспорт) – to ex`port (эспортировать); `import (импорт) – to im`port (импортировать); a `present (подарок) – to pre`sent smb with smth (одаривать кого-то чем-то, дарить кому-то что-то); a `record (запись) – to re`cord smth (записывать).

8а) What is a discontinuous morpheme? It is a morpheme which consists of TWO elements. Л.С. Бархударов distinguishes THREE such morphemes:

- {be … en}

- {have …en}

- {be… ing}

The morpheme {be … en} expresses the meaning of the PASSIVE voice.

The morpheme {have …en} expresses the meaning of the PERFECT aspect.

The morpheme {be… ing} expresses the meaning of the CONTINUOUS aspect.

For example:

• to take:: to be tak en – the privative binary opposition expressing the meanings of the category of VOICE.

The unmarked member ‘to take’ expresses the meaning of the active voice.

The marked member ‘to be tak en ’ expresses the meaning of the passive voice.

E.g: It is important to love and to be loved.

• to take:: to have tak en – the privative binary opposition expressing the meanings of the category of RETROSPECTIVE COORDINATION

The unmarked member ‘to take’ expresses the meaning of the non-perfect aspect.

The marked member ‘to have tak en ’ expresses the meaning of the perfect aspect. In this case the idea of PRECEDENCE ['presidəns, pri`si:dəns] is expressed in this case. Compare: Henry seems to know something,:: Henry seems to have known something,

• to take:: to be tak ing – the privative binary opposition expressing the meanings of the category of DEVELOPMENT

The unmarked member ‘to take’ expresses the meaning of the non-continuous aspect.

The marked member ‘to be tak ing ’ expresses the meaning of the continuous aspect. In this case the action is presented as developing at the described moment.

E.g: Henry seems to know something,:: Henry seems to be drawing something,

9) What is lexicalization of a grammatical morpheme? – It is a linguistic process during which a grammatical morpheme becomes a lexico-grammatical (derivational). For example, the morpheme –(e)s expresses in nouns the meaning of plurality: boy s, cat s, watch es.

But in the words news, colours [ флаг ], mathematics, linguistics the letter ‘s’ and the phonemes [z] and [s] do not denote plurality. News, colours [ флаг ], mathematics, linguistics refer to singularia tantum.

In the nouns news, colours [ флаг ], mathematics, linguistics [z] and [s] represent the derivational [ словообразовательная ] morpheme.

10) Name typical stem-building (derivational) morphemes of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

Nouns: teach er, swimm er, read er; king dom; motiv ation, avi ation, rel ation, specul ation, popul ation; revolu tion, mo tion, devot ion; whit ness, bright ness; art ist, econom ist, commun ist; commun ism; modern ism.

Adjectives: act ive, function al; beauti ful, fright ful; a fraid, a live; father less; dai ly, week ly, month ly; love ly, friend ly, lone ly.

Adverb: active ly, happi ly; first ly, second ly ;out wards, in wards; side wise, clock wise.

11) What the ways to build up new forms?-

- prefixation: shore – a shore, take – mis take, known – un known, member – dis member, write – re write;

- suffixation: lion ess, steward ess, actr ess, waitr ess, widow er, hero ine, teach er, swimm er, read er; king dom; motiv ation, avi ation, rel ation, specul ation, popul ation; revolu tion, mo tion, devot ion; whit ness, bright ness; art ist, econom ist, commun ist; commun ism; modern ism; act ive, function al; beauti ful, fright ful; a fraid, a live; father less; dai ly, week ly, month ly; love ly, friend ly, lone ly; active ly, happi ly; first ly, second ly ;out wards, in wards; side wise, clock wise;

- infixation (vowel-interchange): bl oo d-bl ee d; g oo se – g ee se; t oo th – t ee th; m ou se – m i ce; m a n – m e n;

- the use of a superfix (of the suprasegmental morpheme = words are derived through a shift of stress: the word accent = stress can also build up new words): `export (экспорт) – to ex`port (экспортировать); `import (импорт) – to im`port (импортировать); a `present (подарок) – to pre`sent smb with smth (одаривать кого-то чем-то, дарить кому-то что-то); a `record (запись) – to re`cord smth (записывать);

- zero-affixation = conversion: water (noun) – water (verb – поливать водой); hard (adjective) - hard (adverb);

- suppletivity (new forms or new words are built from different roots): go – went; bad – worse; bad – the worst; well – better; well – the best; am – is – are; am – was; is – was, are – were.

12) What types of oppositions do you know? - privative, gradual and equipollent.

A PRIVATIVE opposition consists of a MARKED and UNMARKED members. E.g. book s:: book; cat:: cat’ s; ask: be ask ed; take:: be tak ing.

An EQUIPOLLENT opposition consists of only MARKED members. E.g. am – is –are

A GRADUAL opposition consists of members which show a gradual increase of the quantity if a quality. E.g. white – whiter – the whitest

13) What is the reduction (=neutralization) of the opposition?

The oppositional principle of the organization of the forms of the same word is based upon the principle of contrast. The contrast (=difference) in forms serves to express different meanings. For example, the word ‘criteri on ’ has two forms: criteri on:: criteri a. Grammarians say that these forms are opposed, are contrasted [ противопоставлены ] to each other.

The form criteri on expresses the meaning of the singular number; ‘ criteri a ’ expresses the meaning of the plural number (criteri on:: criteri a is an equipollent opposition).

Another example: boy expresses the meaning of the singular number; boy s expresses the meaning of the plural number (boy:: boy s is a privative opposition).

The reduction (=neutralization) of the opposition means that in some contexts this contrast (=difference) between the meanings of the members of the opposition disappears: the unmarked member begins to express the meaning of the marked member. In other words, both members of the opposition begin to express the same meaning and the difference between them disappears (the difference in meaning disappears; the difference in form remains).

For example: the word ‘man’ has two forms – ‘man’ and ‘men’. These forms are opposed to each other in language and speech: they have different forms which express different meanings (singular:: plural). For example: There is room only for one man here (‘man’ expresses the meaning of ‘one’ - the meaning of singularity). Three more men entered (‘men’ expresses the meaning of ‘more than one’ - the meaning of plurality).

Yet, in some contexts this difference in meaning disappears and both members begin to mean the same. Such a context is, for example, an expression ‘ Человеку свойственно ошибаться ’. - Man is prone to make mistakes. Here ‘man’ means the same as ‘men’: people, not one person. This can be proved by substitution: if we replace ‘man’ with ‘men’, the meaning of the whole sentence will not change: Men are prone to make mistakes. – Людям свойственно ошибаться.

The reduction (=neutralization) of the opposition of number also takes place when the noun in singular is used with ‘the’ in the generic sense: in this case the singular form of the noun expresses the same meaning as the same noun in the plural form: they both denote the whole class. E.g. The tiger is a man-eater (людоед). – Tigers are man-eaters. We can replace ‘the tiger’ have ‘tigers’ and vice versa, but the meaning of the whole sentence won’t change; in both cases all tigers are meant.

WORD

1) What are the characteristic features of the word? – They are:

- unseparatability (you cannot insert a word into a word. For example, we cannot);

- positional mobility\ looseness (you can shift the word within a sentence: You are a teacher > Are you teacher?)

- isolatability (you can use a word out of context, e.g. in answers: Home).

These features make it possible to discriminate between a word and a morpheme. A morpheme (especially a bound morpheme) is not characterized by positional mobility\ looseness and isolatability.

2) How to differentiate between a WORD-COMBINATION (a phrase) and an ANALYTICAL FORM?

This differentiation is rather difficult because an analytical form has much in common with a free word-combination. Let us first enumerate the features which are common both of a phrase and of an analytical form.

An analytical form outwardly look like a word-combination: it can consist of two, three, or four members:

- am hurt - is reading

- is taken - am sitting

- are cut - are giving

- was made - was lying

- were written - were walking

- has been done - have been reading

- have been brought - has been sitting

- had been forgotten - had been driving

Yet, an analytical form is considered to be a form of ONE word. An analytical form lacks such a characteristic feature of the word as indivisibility\ uninterruptability. The feature ‘indivisibility\ uninterruptability’ means that a word (in its synthetic form) cannot be interrupted by means of introducing another word inside it: * tab small le (table and small); * gentle kind man (gentleman and kind).

An analytical form CAN sometimes be interrupted – just like a word-combination: have made > have just made; is crying > is always crying. This feature makes analytical forms similar to word-combinations.

The DIFFERENCE between analytical forms and word-combinations is revealed in the fact that the components of a word-combination are words, each with its own lexical and grammatical meanings. The components of an analytical form are of different nature. A word-form consists of morphs. For example, the analytical form have taken. It consists of the root-morph ‘ take ’ and the grammatical discontinuous morph {have…en}, expressing the meaning of perfectness.

In other words, we can say that an analytical form contain a free grammatical morpheme: shall go.

3) What is the suppletive way of making up forms? – It is such a way when the forms of the same words are built form different roots. For example: am-is-are; am – was; are – were; good – better; well – better; good - the best; well - the best; go - went.