Practice writing abstract and summaries using the text given in thepart additional reading using words and word combinations given in appendix 3

PART III. ADDITIONAL READING

Plasma

The plasma state is often referred to as the fourth state of matter, an identification that resonates with the element of fire, which along with earth, water and air made up the elements of Greek cosmology according to Empedocles. Fire may indeed result in a transition from the gaseous to the plasma state, in which a gas may be fully or, more likely, partially ionized. For the present we identify as plasma any state of matter that contains enough free charged particles for its dynamics to be dominated by electromagnetic forces. In practice quite modest degrees of ionization are sufficient for a gas to exhibit electromagnetic properties. Even at 0.1 per cent ionization a gas already has an electrical conductivity almost half the maximum possible, which is reached at about 1 per cent ionization. The outer layers of the Sun and stars in general are made up of matter in an ionized state and from these regions winds blow through interstellar space contributing, along with stellar radiation, to the ionized state of the interstellar gas. Thus, much of the matter in the Universe exists in the plasma state. The Earth and its lower atmosphere is an exception, forming a plasma-free oasis in a plasma universe. The upper atmosphere on the other hand, stretching into the ionosphere and beyond to the magnetosphere, is rich in plasma effects. Solar physics and in a wider sense cosmic electrodynamics make up one of the roots from which the physics of plasmas has grown; in particular, that part of the subject known as magnetohydrodynamics – MHD for short – was established largely through the work of Alfven. A quite separate root developed from the physics of gas discharges, with glow discharges used as light sources and arcs as a means of cutting and welding metals. The word plasma was first used by Langmuir in 1928 to describe the ionized regions in gas discharges. These origins are discernible even today though the emphasis has shifted. Much of the impetus for the development of plasma physics over the second half of the twentieth century came from research into controlled thermonuclear fusion on the one hand and astrophysical and space plasma phenomena on the other.

To a degree these links with ‘big science’ mask more bread-and-butter applications of plasma physics over a range of technologies. The use of plasmas as sources for energy-efficient lighting and for metal and waste recycling and their role in surface engineering through high-speed deposition and etching may seem prosaic by comparison with fusion and space science but these and other commercial applications have laid firm foundations for a new plasma technology.