Causes of Language Evolution

The causes or moving factors in language history is one of the most controversial issues of historical linguistics. Various explanations and theories have been suggested expressing different views concerning language evolution.

For example, in the early 19^th century representatives of the so-called romantic trend (including J. Grimm) interpreted the history of the Indo-European languages, and especially that of Germanic languages, as decline and degradation, for most of these languages have lost their richness of grammatical forms, declensions, conjugations and inflections since the so-called ‘Golden Age’ of the parent-language.

Linguists of the natural trend (A. Schleicher) conceived language as a living organism. Hence it’s birth, youth, maturity, old age and death.

In the later 19^th century the psychological theories of language (W.Wundt, H. Paul) attributed linguistic changes to individual psychology and accidental individual fluctuations.

The study of factual history undertaken by the Neo-Grammarians led them to believe that there are no superior or inferior stages in language history and that all languages are equal; and changes are brought about by phonetic laws which are universal, that is, admit of no exceptions (seeming exceptions are due to analogy or are a result of a further development of language).

Sociolinguists maintained that linguistic changes are caused by social conditions and events in external history, whereas others hold that external factors are no concern of linguistic history. In accordance with this view the main internal cause which produces linguistic change is the pressure of the language system.Whenever the balance of the system or its symmetrical structural arrangement is disrupted, it tends to be restored again under the pressure of symmetry inherent in the system.

The Prague school of linguists was the first to recognize the functional stratification of language and its diversity dependent on external conditions. In present-day theories, especially in sociolinguistics, great importance is attached to the variability of speech in social groups as the primary factor of linguistic change.

As is seen, there are different interpretations of language evolution. But still, it should be understood that, broadly speaking, linguistic changes include such factors as external (extra linguistic) and internal (intralinguistic)/ The term external or extralinguistic embraces a number of aspects of human life: events in the history of people, including the structure of the society, expansion over new geographical areas, migrations, mixtures and separation of tribes, political and economic unity or disunity, contacts with other peoples, the progress of culture and literature. These aspects of external history determine the linguistic situation and affect the evolution of the language.

As for internal factors of language evolution, they arise from the language system. They are normally subdivided into general factors or general regularities, which operate in all languages as inherent properties of any language system, and specific factors operating in one language or in a group of related languages at a certain period of time.

The most general causes of language evolution are to be found in the tendencies to improve the language technique or its formal apparatus These tendencies are displayed in numerous assimilative and dissimilative phonetic changes in different languages, including English. By assimilation is meant a process by which one sound is made similar in its place or manner of articulation to a neighbouring sound. For example, the word ‘cupboard’ was presumably once pronounced as the spelling indicates (and as most 1^st –year students unaware of its correct pronunciation pronounce!) with the consonant cluster pb in the middle. The [p] was assimilated to [b] in manner of articulation (voicing was maintained throughout the cluster), and subsequently the resultant double [bb] was simplified. With a single [b] in the middle and an unstressed second syllable, the word cupboard, as it is pronounced nowadays, is no longer so evidently a compound of cup and board, as the spelling still shows it.

Dissimilation refers to the process by which one sound becomes different from a neighbouring sound. For example, the word pilgrim (French pelerin) derives from Latin peregrinus; the sound [l] results from dissimilation of the first [r] under the influence of the second [r]. Both assimilation and dissimilation are commonly explained by ‘ease of articulation’ and are realized in a particular context. Simplification is another phenomenon responsible for phonetic changes. For example, the consonant cluster [kn] in know, kne e, etc. was simplified to [n], or [t] was dropped in listen and often.

On the other hand, there are tendencies which resist linguistic change aiming to preserve it as a means fit for communication. These tendencies account for the historical stability of many elements and features (statics in diachrony). For instance, English has retained many words and formal markers expressing the most important notions and distinctions (most personal pronouns, names of some important everyday things; the suffix-d to form the Past tense, etc.). When nouns lost their case endings, to compensate for the loss prepositional phrases were used more widely.

There is another important factor which should be mentioned in this context. It is interdependence of changes within the sub-systems of the language and interaction of changes at different linguistic levels.

For example, in the course of history English nouns lost 2 of their original four cases. As a result, simplification of noun morphology involved changes at different levels; phonetic weakening of final syllables, analogical leveling of forms at the morphological level, and stabilization of word order at the level of syntax.

Some factors and causes of language evolution are confined to a certain group of languages or to one language only and may operate over a limited span of time. These specific factors are trends of evolution characteristic of separate languages or linguistic groups, which distinguish them from other languages.

On the one hand, English as a member of the Germanic group of languages, shares many Germanic trends of development, but, on the other hand, it has transformed some of them and developed its own trends caused by specifically English internal and external factors. For example, like other Germanic languages, it displayed a tendency towards a more analytical grammatical structure, but it has gone further along this way of development than most other languages, probably owing to the peculiar combination of internal and external conditions and to the interaction of changes at different linguistic levels.

Lecture 1

1. The Subject and Aims of the Course

English –Belarusian/Russian ? difficulties Practical · Spelling /phonetics(conventional) · Vocabulary · Grammar · Syntax Theoretical (theory complemented by practice) Educational (history of the country) 2. A Brief Survey of the History of Language Study - Linguistics: the science of scientific study of language as a system. - Linguistics and philology Linguistics: synchronic versus diachronic theoretical versus applied microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics 19th century: the Comparative method: Sanskrit ó Greek, Latin, Sir W. Jones (1786) – 3 languages must have developed from one common language: Indo-European, proto-Indo-European, the common parent language, the original language; Jacob Grimm: Grimm’s Law, 1882(Rasmus Rask): systematic correspondences between the sounds of Germanic and non-Germanic: Germanic Non-Germanic Germanic Gothic Sanskrit Greek Latin Modern English fotus padas podos pedis foot Neogrammarians: the 1870s: all changes in the sound system were the result of regular sound laws; Verner’s Law: 1875, explained the so-called exceptions to Grimm’s Law; ® internal reconstruction (*). The 20the century Structuralism: Ferdinand de Saussure: language and speech (langue and parole), form and substance. The Prague School: Trubetskoy, Jakobson, the Copenhagen(Glossematics), (the London school): combination of structuralism and functionalism: the structure of a language is determined by its functions: - cognitive –transmission of factual information; - expressive –mood or attitude of the speaker; - conative –influence the interlocutor or bring about some practical effect

Phonology- the study of sound systems; phonemes are sets of distinctive features and each phoneme is composed of a number of articulatory features and is distinguished by absence or presence at least one feature. Theory of markedness: when 2 phonemes are distinguished by the presence or absence of a distinctive feature, one of them is marked and the other unmarked for this feature: /p/ is marked and /b/ is unmarked with respect to voicing. Notions of theme and rheme 5. Sources used for studying language history   Written Documents (extant texts) - Related Languages (Comparative method) - pluses and minuses - pronunciation: illiterate spelling - Gothic (4th c.) OE – 7th c. -Latin, French - rhymes: write – light - ancient historians and geographers - internal reconstruction

4.Periods in the history of English.

Periods	Intralinguistic factors	Extralinguistic factors
1st period Old English/ OE   700AD - 1100	Period of full endings. Any vowel can be found in an unstressed ending sinʒan (a unstressed) sunu (u unstressed)
2 period Middle English/ ME   1100 - 1500	Period of leveled endings. Vowels of unstressed endings were leveled under a neutral vowel something like[c], represented by the letter e. singen (a ® e) sone (u ® e)	1066, the year of Norman conquest   1485, the end of the War of Roses, the decay of feudalism the rise of capitalism
3 period Modern English /MdE   1500 – nowadays   Early MdE:1500 – 1660/1700 Late MdE: 1660/1700 – present day	Period of lost endings   sing son	The rise of English nation and the national language

Lecture 2

1. Classification of Modern Germanic Languages and their Distribution

Classification of languages means their placement into families or phyla [‘failə] on the basis of lexical or typological similarity or shared ancestry. Languages may thus be classified either genetically or typologically. A genetic classification assumes that certain languages are related in that they have evolved from a common ancestral language. This form of classification employs ancient records as well as hypothetical reconstructions of the earlier forms of languages, called protolanguages. Typological classification is based on similarities in language structure.

As for the English language, genetically (historically) it belongs to the Germani c or Teutonic group of languages of the Indo-European linguistic family. Old Germanic languages comprised 3 groups: East Germanic, North Germanic and West Germanic. East Germanic languages no longer exist, as they are dead. Only one language belonging to this group is known, Gothic, as a written document came down to us in this language. It is a translation of the Bible made in the 4^th century A.D. by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas from the Greek language.

Modern Germanic languages embrace 2 groups: North Germanic and West Germanic as they have survived until today. The table below illustrates their division and distribution.