WHAT IS SCIENCE?

There are many definitions of science, but none of them can be accepted as complete. Speaking about science one should remember that the word “ science “ comes from the Latin " scientia," meaning “ knowledge ”. Webster New Collegiate Dictionary defines science as " knowledge attained through study or practice," or " knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical world. "

In general it is thought that science is the concerted human effort to understand the surrounding natural world and human society. Science is usually divided into fundamentals and humanities, into theoretical and empirical (natural and social), or into theoretical or pure science and applied one.

More detailed classification distinguishes between formal, physical, life, and social sciences on the one hand and applied sciences on the other. Each class includes concrete disciplines. For example, according to Wikipedia “formal sciences are disciplines concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, statistics, theoretical computer science, information theory, game theory, systems theory, decision theory, and portions of linguistics.” So, we can say that the list of branches of modern science is enormous and growing every year.

It is suggested that modern science began around 1600 due to the efforts of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), and Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Their era marked the change from scholasticism of the Middle Ages and Renaissance to the science as we know it nowadays.

Scientists make new discoveries or develop new concepts and theories. But through time theories come and go, or at least are modified, as old ideas are questioned and new evidence is discovered. Hence, the body of knowledge produced by science undergoes constant change, which provides progress toward a better understanding of nature and society. According to Karl Popper, "Science is a history of corrected mistakes". It means that science does not presently, and probably never can, give statements of absolute eternal truth - it only provides theories.

To provide development of science, researchers put forward hypotheses - testable propositions explaining the occurrence of a phenomenon or phenomena which help to guide further investigation. Scientists make assumptions and use different methods to obtain data to support their assumptions or propositions. They make conclusions based on reasoning from accepted premises.

Science should not be confused with technology. Thought people doing science often use sophisticated technology, in fact science doesn't require it. Of course, science often leads to technology, and often uses technology, but science isn't technology, and can operate quite independently of it. On the other hand, technology is often defined as the practical application of science. That is why it is quite natural to say that science and technology overlap in so many ways that people treat them as a single field of human activity. They both play an important part in Man’s existence. There is no doubt that man’s technical intelligence rating is very high. But man should ask himself whether he is smart enough to benefit permanently from the advances of science, or so stupid that he will let them destroy his civilization.

What is the purpose of Science? The answer to this question is not an easy one. Some people believe that the purpose of science depends on what subject is being considered by a certain branch of science. Other people consider that the purpose of science is a very simple one: it allows humankind to improve its quality of life, to discover and explain the unknown, or to explain and predict. Still others think that the fundamental aim of science is to describe phenomena and not to “explain things”, while the secondary purpose of science is the formulation of principles and theories, which will lead to new studies and increased knowledge. Most of contemporary scientists believe that the purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality.

Б) Найдите в Википедии определение вашей области науки на английском языке (http://en.wikipedia.org /). Дополните его сведениями из истории развития этой науки и назовите наиболее значимые теории. Какие технологии связаны с этой областью науки?

§ 3

А. Теоретическая часть.

Передача научного сообщения невозможна без использования глаголов, которые участвуют в образовании свободных синтаксических конструкций (словосочетаний и предложений). В английском языке в научном контексте часто используются устойчивые сочетания глагола и существительного, как правило, необразного, нефразеологического характера. При использовании в тексте глаголов и глагольных словосочетаний необходимо помнить следующее.

1. Смысловые глаголы, функционирующие в предложении в качестве сказуемого (личные формы глаголов), используются со вспомогательными глаголами (исключая утвердительную форму сказуемых в Present Indefinite и Past Indefinite), и образуют видовременные формы в соответствии с коммуникативным намерением говорящего. Сведения о видовременных формах английского глагола можно получить из грамматических справочников, но важно знать, что смысловой глагол в любой из форм обозначает само действие и переводится на русский язык. Смысловой глагол в соответствии с типом видовременного сказуемого может употребляться в форме Причастия I (Present Participle – V-ing: reading) или Причастия II (Past Participle – V₃, которое у регулярных глаголов образуется с помощью форманта –ed: worked; формы нерегулярных глаголов приводятся в специальных таблицах: go-went-gone).

Вспомогательный глагол (либо первый из нескольких, либо в сочетании со смысловым глаголом) указывает грамматическое время (Present, Past, Future, Future in the Past), аспект или вид (Indefinite/Simple, Continuous/Progressive, Perfect Simple, Perfect Continuous/Progressive), лицо, число и залог (Active Voice, Passive Voice) сказуемого, изменяется в соответствии с указанными категориями и согласуясь с подлежащим, и не переводится. Исключением являются неизменяемые модальные глаголы (can, may, must, should, would, ought to, need, dare) и формы сослагательного наклонения (Subjunctive Mood).

При анализе предложений следует учитывать наклонение сказуемого: изъявительное (They obtained all the necessary information.), повелительное (Look for the necessary information in the Internet!), сослагательное (I would search for the necessary information in the literature if I were you). Правильное определение и построение видовременной формы сказуемого и наклонения глагола содействует адекватной передаче сообщения адресату и понимания им передаваемой информации.

2. Неличные формы глагола: Present Participle, Past Participle и Infinitive (без частицы to) входят в состав личных форм сказуемого. Все неличные формы глагола, включая Gerund, употребляются в предложении самостоятельно, в качестве разных членов предложения, а также в составе особых оборотов (конструкций): зависимых и независимых. Все неличные формы глагола (за исключением Past Participle, имеющего одну неизменяемую форму) характеризуются категориями аспекта/вида и залога. Формы Present Participle и Gerund полностью совпадают во всех категориях, но их функции в предложении различаются. Кроме того, перед Gerund часто употребляется предлог: without making calculations.

Infinitive и Gerund сочетают свойства глагола и имени существительного, и могут занимать в предложении позиции, аналогичные занимаемым именем существительным, например позицию прямого дополнения: I like reading books / to read books. Если в предложении они функционируют так же, как и имя существительное, то могут переводиться на русский язык существительным же.

3. Английские глаголы делятся на переходные (требующие после себя прямого дополнения: to take a book) и непереходные (не требующие прямого дополнения: to come). Многозначный глагол в разных своих значениях или употреблениях может быть и переходным и непереходным (I don’t understand; He didn’t understand me). При наличии прямого и косвенного дополнения вначале ставится косвенное, а затем прямoе: give this student the book. Если косвенное дополнение является предложным, то порядок слов будет противоположный тому, что указан выше: give the book to him.

4. Часто глаголы образуют устойчивые сочетания с предлогами, передающими значения, соответствующие значениям падежей в русском языке: to go to (направление движения); written by N (исполнитель действия); equipped with new apparatus (объект или инструмент действия). Примеры устойчивых сочетаний глаголов с предлогами: to account for, to associate with, to benefit from, to divide into, to exclude from, to include in, to research into, to speak of, to write of, etc.

Особенностью английского языка является наличие глаголов с последующей неотделимой частицей (так называемые фразовые глаголы). Их следует запоминать, поскольку частица существенно меняет значение глагола: to look (смотреть); to look after smb/smth (заботиться о ком-либо); to put up (смириться с чем-либо); to write up (письменно оформить работу); to make up (составлять, образовывать); to put forward (выдвигать, предлагать). Существуют специальные словари фразовых глаголов. В научном контексте такие глаголы обычно употребляются в устных высказываниях.

5. В научной коммуникации постоянно употребляется некоторое количество глаголов, которые можно назвать ключевыми, и которые рекомендуется запоминать, например: to assume, to attempt, to calculate, to classify, to conduct, to describe, to develop, to discover, to establish, to examine, to explore, to evaluate, to find, to investigate, to present, to provide, to study, to support, etc.

6. Для глаголов в научном контексте характерна устойчивость сочетаний с определенными именами существительными или набором существительных: to provide an explanation; to conduct research /experiment /investigation, to explain the phenomenon /results, etc.

7. Нередко глагольные словосочетания заменяются в тексте именными. В этом случае следует учитывать наличие или отсутствие предлога у глагола или у однокоренного существительного: to explain smth – explanation of smth.

Б. Практическая часть.

Задание 1. Проанализируйте подчеркнутые сказуемые в следующих предложениях и дайте их перевод с учетом грамматического времени, аспекта и залога.

1.Philosophy began with man’s sense of wonder and curiosity expressed in the question “What are things really like?” Philosophers approached this question with a fresh and new frame of mind that was in contrast to that of the great poets. 2. We are told by Aristotle that “the Pythagoreans devoted themselves to mathematics”. 3. Pythagoras became interested in mathematics for religious reasons. He is, therefore, referred to as the founder both of a religious sect and at the same time a school of mathematics. 3. The research underlines the importance of psychological experiments for understanding the nature of aggression. They will provide solid evidence that aggression is caused both by internal and external factors. 4. The data we have collectedwill be presented in a chart or table, as it is the most efficient way to illustrate the results of our research. 5. Many scientists are staying in the same research laboratories through their lives and don’t agree to move to more prestigious institutions. 6. The failure of the experiment has been linked to the inappropriate methodology.

Задание 2. Вставьте необходимый по смыслу глагол из приведенных ниже вместо пропусков в следующих предложениях. Учитывайте сочетаемость глагола с определенными предлогами и именами существительными.

Depends, demonstrated, is identified, to examine, deals with, were applied, to keep, to emphasize, is based, can be filled

1. When doing research it is sensible … good records of all your findings. 2. Our next step is … the evidence for the existence of this species. 3. The vacancy … only by a scientist with outstanding record and background. 4. The text … the methods of biological science, their historical background and development. 5. Much … on the personal interest of the student, and on his linguistic and cultural background. 6. This approach … on a rather well established methodology. 7. Their research clearly … the need for a new approach to the study of human behavior. 8. Social research techniques … to examine the effects of the policy on the middle-aged. 9. Monetary economics … with the theories of Milton Friedman. 10. In her speech she tried … on the advantages of this new approach.

Задание 3. Обратите внимание на использование модальных глаголов и их эквивалентов в следующих предложениях. Переведите предложения.

1. In his book, Jackson must have departed from his earlier theory. 2. They couldn’t account for the mistakes in their calculations. 3. Every visible event in nature can be explained by previous events. 4. In a conceptual analysis one need only examine the parts. 5. Simplification must be used as a method of understanding any science. 6. It may take you twelve hours reading to produce an intellectually honest article of a thousand words. 7. According to the author this theory should hold in all cases. 8. They were able to predict further development of events. 9. Planning for the implementation of research results should begin when the research itself begins. 10. He is allowed to perform the operation. 11. I am to go to the conference. 12. A system analyst must learn to distinguish between real problems and symptoms. 13.This view ought to be accepted. 14. Need we use all these pseudo-operations? 15. All the responsibility should be strictly defined. 16. They need not have carried out the test any more. 17. They may have to take value into account. 18. The following points shall, however, be mentioned. 19. I will direct my critical remarks to the author of the article. 20. I would direct some critical remarks to the author of the article.

Задание 4. Замените следующие подчеркнутые глаголы словосочетаниями глагола и существительного. Выберите из предложенных ниже:

To offer/provide/give an explanation of/for; to carry out an exploration of; to put/place emphasis on; to give/provide a description of

1. This book emphasizes the importance of reading in language acquisition. 2. Many sociologists explored the relationship between family background and political ambition. 3. The book describes the beginning of space research. 4. This theory explains the fluctuations of the figures for this period.

Задание 5. Определите наклонение глагола в следующих предложениях и переведите предложения.

1. The study revealed a regular pattern of criminal behavior for teenagers. 2. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different linguistic methods. 3. Provide statistical evidence and comments where necessary. 4. This fact proves that we can identify trans-cultural ideals. 5. The work would be done if they prepared for it properly. 6. Does Greig’s article supports or challenges Park’s theory? 6. I would like to give considerations on this subject. 7. It is desirable that this method (should) be tested in practice. 8. The recent investigation suggests a different interpretation of the situation. 9. Turn to the more difficult cases that I mentioned in my previous lecture. 10. But for the lack of reliable instrument the problem could have been solved long ago. 11. There was apparent discrepancy between the two sets of results. 12. There are many factors that could have contributed to this relatively small imbalance. 13. List the characteristics you examined in detail below. 14. Even problems that would be termed “simple” nowadays could not be handled in a straightforward way.15. We assigned the task randomly to the experimental group and to the control group to see how the subjects would react to different tasks.

Задание 5. Найдите в следующих предложениях фразовые глаголы и переведите предложения.

1. The author points out that the increase of population has led to some economic problems. 2. The unemployed in developing countries make up nearly half of adult population. 3. Pavlov decided to work on animal behaviour to analyse stimuli-reaction relationship. He set up a series of experiments investigating the behaviour of dogs. 4. What she has observed seems to go against current theories. 5. On completing your research you have to write it all up. 6. What sort of things must a scientist carry out? 7. It is sensible to go through maths calculations before you draw any conclusion.

Задание 6. А) Обратите внимание на подчеркнутые неличные формы глагола и их функции в следующих предложениях. Переведите предложения.

1. Defining problems precisely requires patience. 2. Memory is the process of selective forgetting. 3. To think otherwise would be a mistake. 4. Psychology of creative work is many-sided. 5. The performed work showed good results. 6. The equipment to be used is not ready yet. 7. They succeeded in getting reliable information. 8. He was the first to realize the difficulty of the situation. 9. The theory also basically improves understanding of this situation. 10. To construct a design of this kind seems nearly impossible. 11. Unfortunately the advantage of joining efforts for a complicated job is not always understood. 12. They have come here to observe the experiment. 13. In order to do this work well one must learn a lot. 14. It was a standpoint shared by many philosophers. 15. A number of animals living in the soil feed on plants.

Б) Проанализируйте примеры сложных конструкций с неличными формами глагола в предложениях ниже и дайте их эквивалентный перевод.

Конструкции с Причастиями I и II. 1.The characteristics of the components so far considered can be presented by the following scheme. 2. Several treatments of this problem have been presented, with theories resulting from this investigation falling into one of the two categories. 3. The data obtained are considered as not being adequately represented by equation 1. 4. We know them being invited to all our meetings.

Конструкции с Герундием. 1.The history of radioactivity begins with Henry Bequerel’s having reported his discovery of rays of unknown nature. 2. Besides being very involved this procedure is very costly. 3. (With) research involving more and more people, the profession of a scientist has become one of the most prestigious nowadays. 4. There is unmistakable proof of his (professor, Dean’s) having been wrong.

Конструкции c Инфинитивом. 1. We expect them to be involved in the work. 2. Experience shows this strategy to have produced better results. 3. Prof. Martin seems to have given up this view. 4. The lifetime of the equipment is assumed to be 30 years. 5. For this method to be valuable it must be improved.

Задание 7.

A. Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. Why is the scientific method required by researchers?

2. How is the scientific method defined?

3. Which stages or steps does the scientific method include?

4. Which steps should the researcher repeat if the satisfactory explanation is not found?

5. Should the researcher be guided by any factors when making conclusions on the investigated problem or set hypothesis?