The skeleton

The skeleton is the framework of hard tissue which supports, protects, gives shape and rigidity to the bodies of animals. The skeleton also provides an anchorage (attachment) for muscles. In structure it is either an exoskeleton or an endoskeleton.

The exoskeleton is a skeleton covering the body, or situated beneath the skin, e.g. the hard covering of chitin, found in insects; the calciferous shell of mollusks; the bony plates of a tortoise, etc.

The endoskeleton is situated inside the body of an animal. Animals possessing an endoskeleton, may also have an exoskeleton e.g. the exoskeleton of a turtle, an animal with a vertebrate endoskeleton.

The endoskeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton includes the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum.

The skull consists of the cranium and facial skeleton. The cranium is composed of several bones joined by sutures. It encloses (houses) and protects the brain. The facial skeleton includes the sense organs, the jaws, the hyoid bone, and the cartilages of the pharynx and the larynx.

The vertebral column is a flexible column of bones, which gives the support for the body of higher animals and protects the spinal cord. The individual bones are called vertebrae. The vertebral column is subdivided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal regions.

The ribs are flat curved bones articulating with the vertebral column at one end, either connected to the sternum or free at the other end. They encircle and protect the thoracic cavity. The ribs are connected by intercostal muscles.

The sternum or breastbone is the narrow bone in the front of the chest to which most of the ribs are attached.

The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs. The limbs formed by long bones enable an animal to walk, because the bones are joined by hinge joints.

Дайте відповіді на запитання.

1. What is the skeleton?

2. What are the functions of the skeleton?

3. What is the exoskeleton?

4. Where is the endoskeleton situated?

5. What does the endoskeleton consist of?

6. What does the axial skeleton include?

7. What does the skull consist of?

8. What is the cranium composed of?

9. What is the function of the cranium?

10. What does the facial skeleton include?

11. What is the vertebral column?

12. How are the individual bones of the vertebral column called?

13. What is the vertebral column subdivided into?

14. What are the ribs?

15. What do the ribs encircle and protect?

16. What is the sternum?

17. What does the appendicular skeleton comprise?

18. What do the limbs enable?

Вправи

I.Підберіть до англійських слів у лівій колонці їх українські еквіваленти з правої колонки.

1.rigidity	a)форма
2.provide	b)тканина
3.protect	c)тварина
4.skeleton	d)забезпечувати
5.tissue	e)підтримувати
6.animal	f)каркас, кістяк
7.support	g)жорсткість, твердість
8.framework	h)скелет, кістяк
9.body	i)захищати
10.shape	j)тулуб

II. Підберіть до українських слів у лівій колонці їх англійські еквіваленти з правої колонки.

1. внутрішній скелет	a) structure
2. хітин	b) muscle
3. внизу	c) anchorage
4. структура	d) attachment
5. розміщувати	e) endoskeleton
6. прикріплення	f) exoskeleton
7. закріплення	g) covering
8. м’яз	h) situate
9. покриття, оболонка	i) beneath
10. зовнішній скелет	j) chitin

III.Підберіть до англійських словосполучень у лівій колонці їх українські еквіваленти з правої колонки.

1.thoracic cavity	a)осьовий скелет
2.calciferous shell	b)апендикулярний скелет
3.intercostal muscles	c)хребетний стовп
4.vertebral column	d)блокоподібний суглоб
5.hard tissue	e)тверде покриття
6.axial skeleton	f)тверда тканина
7.hinge-joint	g)вузька кістка
8.appendicular skeleton	h)вапнякова черепашка
9.hard covering	i)грудна порожнина
10.narrow bone	j)міжреберні м’язи

IV.Підберіть до українських словосполучень у лівій колонці англійські еквіваленти з правої колонки.

1.спинний мозок	a)hyoid bone
2.хвостова частина	b)flexible column
3.довга кістка	c)spinal cord
4.гнучкий стовп	d)thoracic cage
5.поперекові хребці	e)facial skeleton
6.під’язикова кістка	f)cervical region
7.шийна частина	g)sense organs
8лицевий череп	h)caudal region
9.грудна клітка	i)long bone
10.органи чуття	j)lumbar vertebrae

V.Згрупуйте слова у синонімічні пари.

1.skeleton	a)house
2.backbone	b)attachment
3.skull	c)breastbone
4.sternum	d)vertebral column
5.enclose	e)framework
6.anchorage	f)cranium

VI.Згрупуйте подані нижче слова за частинами мови.

Іменник	Прикметник	Дієслово
skeleton	hard	support

Insect, cervical, higher, comprise, chitin, appendicular, attachment, facial, flexible, axial, enclose, posses, framework, include, muscle, covering, calciferous, spinal, attach, rigidity, enable, join, vertebral, bony, lumbar, anchorage, vertebrate, body, compose, exoskeleton.

VII.Заповніть пропуски у реченнях, використовуючи слова у дужках.

1.The skull consists of the cranium and the _________.

2.The individual bones are called __________.

3.The ___________are flat curved bones.

4.The cranium is composed of several bones joined by ____________.

5.The skeleton supports the _____________of animals.

6.The exoskeleton consists of the ____________and the appendicular.

7.The hard covering of ______________ is found in insects.

8.Most of the mollusks have the _______________ shells.

9. The skeleton is the framework of hard _____________.

10.The ____________ is situated inside the body of an animal.

11.The ribs protect the thoracic _____________.

12.The sternum or _______________is the narrow bone in the front of the chest.

(calciferous, endoskeleton, cavity, tissue, chitin, axial skeleton, facial skeleton, ribs, sutures, breastbone, bodies, vertebrae).

VIII.Підберіть терміни до їх визначень.

1.Skeleton	a)a flexible column of bones which gives the support for the body of higher animals.
2.Vertebrae	b)a skeleton covering the body.
3.Vertebral сolumn	c)flat curved bones which protect the thoracic cavity.
4.Exoskeleton	d)the individual bones of the vertebral column.
5.Ribs	e)a narrow bone in the front of the chest.
6.Sternum	f)a framework of hard tissue which supports and protects the bodies of animals.

IX.Виконайте вправу за зразком, звертаючи увагу на форми присудків.

Зразок: The bodies of animals are supported by the skeleton. – Passive Voice.

The skeleton supports the bodies of animals. – Active Voice.

1. The brain is enclosed by the skull.

2. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column.

3. The thoracic cavity is protected by the ribs.

4. The sense organs are enclosed by the facial skeleton.

5. The anchorage for muscles is provided by the skeleton.

6. The bodies of some animals are covered by the exoskeleton.

X. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у Present Simple Passive Voice. Перекладіть речення українською мовою.

1. The covering of the chitin (to find) in insects.

2. The bones of the cranium (to join) by sutures.

3. The support for the body of higher animals (to do) by the vertebral column.

4. The endoskeleton (to situate) inside the body of an animal.

5. The cranium (to compose) of several bones.

6. The brain (to protect) by the bones of the skull.

7. The thoracic cavity (to encircle) by the ribs.

XI.Виберіть в дужках відповідну форму дієслова. Перекладіть речення українською мовою.

1. The ribs (is connected, connect, are connected) by intercostal muscles.

2. A small bone called lacrimal (are perforated, is perforated, perforates) by a small canal for the lacrimal duct.

3. The bones of the limbs (are joined, join, is joined) by hinge joints.

4. The vertebral column (are subdivided, is subdivided, subdivided) into several regions.

5. The exoskeleton is usually (compose, composes, composed) of substances secreted by the epidermal cells.

6. The limbs (form, is formed, are formed) by long bones.

7. Most of the ribs (are attached, is attached, attach) to the sternum.

XII. Утворіть питальні та заперечні форми речень.

Зразок: The bones of the limbs are joined by hinge joints.

Питання:

1) Are the bones of the limbs joined by hinge joints? (Загальне).

2) What are the bones of the limbs joined by? (Спеціальне).

3) Are the bones of the limbs joined by hinge joints or by sutures? (Альтернативне).

4) The bones of the limbs are joined by hinge joints, aren’t they? (Розділове).

Заперечення: The bones of the limbs are not joined by sutures.

1.The limbs enable an animal to walk.

2.The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs.

3.Most of the ribs are attached to the sternum.

4.The sternum or breastbone is the narrow bone in the front of the chest.

5.The ribs are connected by intercostal muscles.

6.The ribs encircle and protect the thoracic cavity.

7.The ribs articulate with the vertebral column.

8.The ribs are flat curved bones.

9.The individual bones of the vertebral column are called vertebrae.

10.The vertebral column is a flexible column of bones.

XIII.Перекладіть речення українською мовою.

1. The facial skeleton includes the sense organs, the jaws, the hyoid bone, and the cartilages of the pharynx and the larynx.

2. The cranium is composed of several bones joined by sutures.

3. The cranium encloses and protects the brain.

4. The skull consists of the cranium and the facial skeleton.

5. The axial skeleton includes the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum.

6. The endoskeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

7. Animals possessing an endoskeleton may also have an exoskeleton.

8. The endoskeleton is situated inside the body of an animal.

9. The exoskeleton is a skeleton covering the body, or situated beneath the skin.

10. The skeleton provides an anchorage for muscles.