A) What are the main types of the composite sentence? How to differentiate between them'!

The following conjunctions are used to express the copulative type of connection: copulative conjunctions: and; both... and; not only... but also...; nor; neither... nor...; conjunctive adverbs: then, moreover, likewise, besides, again, now, further, furthermore, thus; conjunctive particles: also, too, either, even.

The following conjunctions are used to express the adversative type of connection: adversative conjunctions: but; not; that; while; whereas;

conjunctive adverbs: however; yet; still; nevertheless; notwithstanding; though; conjunctive particle: only.

The following conjunctions are used to express the disjunctive type of connection: disjunctive conjunctions: or; either... or...; conjunctive adverbs: else; otherwise.

The following conjunctions are used to express the causative-consecutive type of connection: causative-consecutive conjunctions:/or, so, so that; conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, therefore; hence; thus; consequently; then.

When a compound sentence is built, clauses make up a chain, they follow each other. The first clause is called the leading clause, the successive clauses are called sequential.

The length of the compound sentence is unlimited. The common type of the compound sentence is a two-clause construction. М.Я. Блох (р. 339) divides compound sentences with more than two clauses into two types: those which are open constructions and those which are closed constructions.

Open constructions are copulative and enumerative types of constructions. Closed constructions are such in which the last clause is introduced by the conjunction 'and': the continuation of such a sentence is impossible, you cannot add a clause after the clause introduced by 'and'. The clause introduced by 'and' expresses a finalization of the expressed chain of ideas. Fro example: His fingernails had been cleaned, his teeth brushed, his hair combed, and he had been dressed informal black.

COMPLEX sentences are such sentences in which the clauses do not follow each other. Clauses in a complex sentence are regarded as inserted into the matrix. The matrix is the initial sentence (base sentence) into the syntactical positions of which other base sentences are inserted. After such a procedure independent sentences become clauses. The matrix sentence becomes the principal main clause. The insert sentences become subordinate clauses [придаточные предложения].

Thus, clauses in a complex sentence perform the same syntactical functions as notional words perform in a simple sentence: those of subject, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial modifier. That is why the clauses are called according to the syntactical positions they occupy:

- the subject clause

- the object clause

- the predicative clause

- the attributive clause

- the adverbial clause

For example:

- the SUBJECT clause (such a clause precedes the predicate): E.g.: Who did it is unknown.

- the OBJECT clause: I know who did it.

- the ATTRIBUTIVE clause: We need a man who would be able to help.

- the ADVERBIAL clause: He did it so that you could finish your studies. (the clause of purpose)

- the PREDICATIVE clause (such a clause follows a link-verb): John looked as if he were going to cry.

3) What are the relations between clauses in a compound sentence?

- copulative relations (and)

- adversative relations (but)

- disjunctive relations (or)

- causative-consecutive relations (for)

4) What is a clause? - A clause is a part\ component \ constituent of a COMPOSITE sentence. A clause is a construction of primary predication which is a part of a composite (complex or compound) sentence. A clause has its own subject and predicate. E.g. I know that you are lying. Tom wanted to go but his mother decided against it.

5) Make up a complex sentence with a subject clause [придаточное подлежащное]. Such a clause precedes the predicate. A clause consists of the subject and the predicate (and other dependent parts). A subject clause is introduced by such conjunctions as who, what, why, when, how, how many, how much, as if, as though, that, etc. E.g.: Who did it is unknown. Where it happened is interesting. How he managed to do it is a mystery. That he wanted to insult me was clear.

6) Make up a complex sentence with a predicative clause. Such a clause follows a link-verb [стоит после глагола-связки]. A predicative clause is introduced by such conjunctions as who, what, why, when, how, how many, how much etc. E.g.: The problem is how we shall get home. Henry looked as if he were going to cry.

7) Make up a complex sentence with an object clause. Such a clause follows a verb in most cases. An object clause is introduced by such conjunctions as who, what, why, when, how, how many, how much, as if, as though, that, etc. E.g.: Ted said that he was ready. Roger wanted to know how many apples Tom had eaten.

8) Make up a complex sentence with an attributive clause. Such a clause follows a noun. Such a clause may be introduced by such conjunctions as that, who, which, when, where. There may be no conjunction at all. E.g.: Dolly showed me the bag she had bought in London. It was the day when everything went wrong. This is the man who can help you.

9) Make up a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of reason\ cause. Such a clause answers the question why? It starts with the conjunction because. E.g.: 1 did it because I had to.

10) Make up a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of concession. Such a clause answers the question 'irrespective of what'? It starts with the conjunctions though, although. E.g.: I didn't go to the meeting although I has been asked to.

11) Make up a complex sentence with an adverbial clause of purpose. Such a clause answers the question 'for what purpose?' E.g.: Ted parents bought him a car so that he could drive as much as he could.

12) What do the simple sentence and the clause have in common? In what do they differ?

The simple sentence and the clause are both constructions of primary predication. It means that they both are characterized by the presence of the subject and the predicate expressed by the finite verbal form.

The difference between the simple sentence and the clause is that the simple sentence can be used as an independent utterance conveying an elementary thought. Thanks to that, a speech act can be reduced to one sentence, that is, we can sometimes realize our communicative intention with the help of only one sentence. For example, with the help of only one sentence we can:

- inform somebody about something (declarative sentences = statements),

- or we can ask somebody about something (interrogative sentences = questions)

- or we can make somebody do something (imperative sentences = inducements).

Clauses are not independent, they are predicative parts of a composite sentence.

13) What is clausalization? What is phrasalization?

CLAUSALIZATION means the transformation of a base sentence into a subordinate or coordinate clause. It happens in the process of subordinate or coordinate combination of sentences. The main clausalizing procedures involve the use of conjunctive words:

- subordinators (подчинительные союзы) and

- coordinators (сочинительные союзы).

A composite (сложное) sentence is produced from minimum two base sentences. For example, two kernel sentences They arrived and They relieved me of my fears (> I was relieved of my fears) can be combined by:

- subordinative clausalizing and

- coordinative clausalizing.

Subordinative clausalizing: When they arrived I was relieved of my fears; If they arrive, I shall be relieved of my fears; Even though they arrive, I shan 't be relieved of my fears.

Coordinative clausalizing: They arrived, but I was not relieved of my fears; They arrived, and I was relieved of my fears.

PHRASALIZATION means the transformation of a sentence:

- either into a semi-predicative (вторично-предикативная) construction (a semi-clause)

- or into a nominal phrase (nominalization).

Semi-predicative constructions (semi-clauses) contain a non-finite verbal form (неличная форма глагола) in the position of the secondary predicate. They can be:

- complex objects of infinitive and participial types (/ saw him walk; I saw him walking),

- various participial constructions of adverbial status (John being busy. I had to fetch the car myself), etc.