Translational transformations

(General)

Any lingual item has two aspects in its nature: the aspect of form and the aspect of contents, which in many cases could be identified with the notion of meaning. And it is words’ meanings that having been actualised in the context produce the sense of the saying. In the translation process the former is usually altered while the latter is presumably retained and passed over to the final receptor in the form of TL lingual items. So the idea of translational transformations lies in changing the lingual item form that takes effect in various translational techniques. In a general sense the word “transformation” means alteration of the formal components of the lingual or more specific – translational item in the translational process while the information transmitted remains untouched. Thus the authentic piece of information that after being encoded, transcoded and passed over to the final receptor in the utmost proximate form to the original is called invariant.

In reality the translator carries out interlingual or cross-language transforming. According to L. Barkhudarov, translational transformations are those numerous qualitative interlingual transformings that are made in order to achieve faithful translation irrespectively of formal and semantic divergences between both languages [presented in the contact].

In the framework of language scholars mark out lexical, grammatical, lexico-grammatical and lexico-semantic transformations.

In the framework of speech, that is in the stream of living speech they distinguish replacements, transpositions, additions and omissions. In the aspect of our viewing we stick to a comprehensive or rather, complex approach.

TOPIC THREE

Lexical transformations

Lexical transformations denote rendering of the meanings related to SL lexical items actualised in a given context by means of TL lexical items that are not their dictionary correspondences but after changing their inner shape convey the original sense.

Translational practice reveals that lexical transformations could be of the following types: concretisation, generalisation, shifting, addition and omission. The point is here that transforming takes place at the level of lexical items proper. On the other hand, functional replacement, antonymous translation, logical development of notions, integral transmutation and compensation feature certain grammatical or semantic substitutions. They rather are to be referred to as lexico-grammatical and lexico-semantic transformations.

Generally speaking any natural language while functioning in society produces constantly a number of new semantic notions and then even mono-semantic words acquire some additional meanings. So the meaning correlation “one-to-one” is disturbed and the correlations of “one-to-more-than-one” appear instead and in the aftermath of the process words get polysemantised.

Apart from this there exist groups of lexical items, which possess a broader semantic field comparatively to others that possess more narrow semantics. Sometimes it is even possible to build up a certain dependence: one item or lexeme with a broader semantic field, called hyperonym, embraces, holds and subordinates another lexical item with more narrow semantics – a hyponym. For example: relative – brother, tree – oak, bird – sparrow. Here we may observe a real hierarchy. This pattern is based upon a formal logical category of subordination.

Translational transformations that are being effected along the vertical slice of this structure include concretisation and generalisation. Actually they are operations in which narrowing and broadening of lexeme’s meaning takes place. Concretisation and generalisation are also called hyponymic and hyperonymic operations accordingly.

Translational transformations that are being effected along the horizontal plane are called interhyponymic: they reflect the motion from one hyponym to another. In the art they are also called shiftings.

In some cases semantic fields of lexemes are partially overlapped. Here the formal logical category of overlapping takes place. When two semantic fields do not touch at all then the logical category of outwardness is present.

Concretisation

There are cases when SL lexical items of broad semantics do not have equivalent counterparts in the TL or the context itself due to some reason does not permit their usage. Besides, lexis of a certain language or at least a part of it may or may not possess clear-cut features of higher or lower specifity. Therefore we resort to the lexical transformation of concretisation, which is a cross-language replacement of a SL lexical item with broad semantics by a TL lexical item possessing narrower semantics. From the viewpoint of lexicology it’s the replacement of the general notion by the concrete one or the replacement of the generic notion by the specific one. In the semantic aspect it reflects the narrowing of meaning or hyponymic operation. The technique is being resorted to when the degree of the information ordering in the SL item is lower than that in the TL. In English-to-Ukrainian translation the following “non inner differentiation” lexemes most often undergo the operation of concretisation: you, meal, to be, to say, to tell, to go, to come, to arrive etc.

He is in the army now. – Тепер він служить у війську.

They arrived yesterday. – Вони прилетіли учора.

Tell him to be our guest. – Запропонуй йому залишитися у нас.

Here the context is to be the chief factor in deciding whether the transformation of concretisation is advisable.

Mr. Yeltsyn said he expected six other states would join after his meeting on Saturday.

Пан Єльцин підкреслив, що сподівається на те, що після суботньої зустрічі до угоди приєднаються шість інших республік.

The English verb to say embraces a large area of notions and possesses a broad semantic field. In translating messages of similar type one has to resort to concretisation in order to avoid tautology, since the item підкреслив is narrower than сказав.

At seven o’clock p.m. an excellent meal was served.

О сьомій вечора подали чудову вечерю.

The item meal in English corresponds to several Ukrainian lexemes: прийом їжі, сніданок, обід, вечеря. The context is to be taken into account either.

Fiction translational practice testifies a high frequency of hyponimic transformations resorted to by skilful translators.

My mother had left her chair in agitation, and gone behind it in the corner.

Схвильована, мати підвелася з крісла і зачаїлася в кутку.

Translation of English language periodicals and publicity also yields a great number of concretisation operations.

One Whitehall insider said Mr. Howard could escape by persuading MPs and the public that Miss Widdencombe, while acting honorably has been duped by Mr. Lewis.

Співробітник міністерства заявив, що панові Говарду вдалося б обійти цю проблему, якби він переконав парламент та громадськість у тому, що пані Відденком діяла доброчинно, але дарма довірилася панові Льюїсу.

It is not a rare occasion when practical translators make a complex of transformational operations, i.e. a number of various transformations are being carried out in one sentence. For in the previous sentence the translator effected concretisation: співробітник міністерства, and supplemented it with the logical development technique: довірилася.

The presence of security-obsessed Beijing leaders might explain the sudden demand for weapons before the ceremony.

The situation-substance deals with the handover of Hong-Kong under the jurisdiction of China. The Beijing officials made efforts to obtain the consent of the Hong Kong authorities to early arrival of Chinese troops to the territory. Still the authorities responded in negative. The heading of the article is “Tanks in Hong Kong”. Thus the sentence in consideration is to be translated as:

Присутність занепокоєних пекінських керівників пояснює несподівану вимогу ввести бронетехніку, перш ніж відбудеться церемонія передачі влади. + grammatical transformation + addition.

The last example illustrates the complex approach to translational transformation implementation within the framework of one sentence. This is an important element not to be ignored by the translator.

Assignment. Analyse the following sentences in the aspect of the translation effected. Examine and estimate the use of the concretisation technique.

I have been at him all the evening. (J.Joyce).

Я докучала йому цілісінький вечір.

Miss Spence’s car was standing by the front door.

Авто панни Спенс припаркували біля парадного під‘їзду.

She snatched away their plates with mock something … (K.Mansfield).

Вона прибрала тарілки з липовими стравами.

… he asked her if she could use a drink (T.Capote).

… він запропонував їй келишок віскі.

Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant (J.Galsworthy).

Дінні чекала у коридорі, що просяк карболкою.

Oh dear, have you started bidding already? (J.Priestley).

Дорогенька, ти вже показала масть?

“I could certainly swallow a highball,” said Logan. (J.Collier).

Я не від того, щоб перехилити коктейль, зауважив Лоуген.

Libbard is only a countrydoctor. You ought to see a specialist.

Ліббард – всього-на-всього сільський лікар, вам варто було б проконсультуватися у кардіолога.

Generalisation

Generalisation is a translational technique reverse to the lexical transformation of concretisation. It lies in a cross-language transforming of a SL lexical item with narrow semantics into a TL item with broader semantic field. In a lexicological aspect it’s replacement of a concrete notion by a general one, replacement of a specific notion by a generic one. In a semantic plan it looks like broadening or a hyperonymic operation. It is advisable to carry it out when the information ordering degree in the SL item exceeds that in the TL item.

Let us consider the article heading from an English newspaper:

No Hanging Bill.

The article dwells upon the abolishment of capital punishment in Great Britain. Historically executions were carried out there with the use of a scaffold, that is all condemned were hanged. Therefore to the English hanging means capital punishment in general. But the literal translation of the word hanging into foreign languages does not convey its usual sense to the outside world, and the final receptor may misunderstood the expression as a proposal to replace hanging with shooting or electrocution etc. Therefore Ukrainian translation of the phrase is to be the following:

Законопроект про скасування смертної кари.

Having implemented the generalisation technique we effected a cross-language broadening of the translational item’s semantic field. In another words we carried out a hyperonymic operation.

Another example:

Then this girl gets killed, because she’s always speeding. (J.Salinger).

А потім дівчина гине в автокатастрофі, вона повсякчас порушувала правила.

In translating the sentence we used the generalisation technique since violations of the traffic rules apart from speeding include also incorrect parking, ignoring the red light, whatsoever.

The Ukrainian mentality organically perceives the outer world segmenting the reality in its peculiar ways especially when dealing with spatio-temporal dimensions. Ukrainians prefer lexical items conveying broader degrees of measurement. A Ukrainian would usually say: “Я прослужив у війську півтора року”. An English native speaker would utter instead something of the sort: “I have been eighteen months in the military”.

72 hours in Ukrainian translation inevitably is transformed into три дні.

In fiction when the character’s height is described and no accent is placed upon his/her anatomic or athletic peculiarities then it is recommended to use generalisations.

I haven’t seen him since I was fourteen, that’s when I left home he was already six-feet-two. (T.Capote).

Я не бачилася з ним, відколи мені виповнилося чотирнадцять років, але коли я пішла від батьків, він уже був дебелим хлопцем.

So we do in rendering minor realias:

He showed us his old beat-up Navajo blanket…

Він показав нам свою бувалу в бувальцях індіанську ковдру.

Transformations of concretisation and generalisation being the operations that pertain to the speaking and thinking process are based upon the formal logical category of subordination.

The following intelligible figures of concretisation and generalisation represent the formal logical category of subordination

Concretisation

SL TL

Generalisation

SL TL

Assignment. Analyse translation of the following phrases for the purpose of implementing the generalisation technique.

It might seem bizarre in the United States or in the rest of Europe where for years, the directors of the national security and intelligence agencies have been routinely announced.

У Сполучених Штатах та в решті країн Європи це могло б здаватися дивним, бо там керівники національних спецслужб, як правило, називалися у пресі.

…the boy was reading a pulp magazine with intense concentration. (H.Slesar).

… молодик зосереджено читав дешевий журнал.

On the other hand, she did not like the American cross-talking and dancing pair … (J.Priestley).

А втім, вона не полюбляла американський естрадний дует.