VII. Stylistic Devices of Translation

One of the most interesting aspects of the theory of translation is the problem of passing stylistic devices in the target language. The given problem comes into notice of scientists-linguists, but is not developed enough. The importance of studying the way of translation of the figurative devices is conditioned by the necessity of faithful figurative information passing in any work of art.

Translation is the difficult many-sided phenomenon, the separate aspects of which can be the object of research by different sciences. Within the framework of the theory of translation the psychological, literary, ethnographic and others sides of translating activity are studied, as well as history of translating activity in this or another country.

A translator uses the methods of passing some stylistic devices that are used in the source language text in order to give a large brightness and expressiveness to the text. A translator has the following choice: either to make an effort to copy the device of the source language text, or if it is impossible, to create an own stylistic device that possesses a similar emotional effect in target language translation.

Expressive devices are phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological etc. forms, which exist in any language as a system of logical and emotional intensification of the utterance.

Expressive devices belong to a system of a language and are used in ordinary speech of a writer irrespective of stylistic purpose, but they may be employed with a definite stylistic aim. In each case, they must be carefully selected and arranged so as to reach certain stylistic effect. Any expressive device may be used for specific literary purpose and only in that way they can be described as stylistic devices. Stylistic device may be regarded as a literary transformation of an ordinary language phenomenon.

The stylistic aspect of translation is necessary to a translator as the faithful and good language translation cannot be created without it. It is the stylistic aspect of language that is not only responsible for translation from the source language into the target one, but for translator’s skill as well. Target language translation depends on a translator’s ability to pass the sense of stylistic units. This is the principle of stylistic compensation, that means a metaphor have to be passed by a metaphor, a metonymy by metonymy, a simile by simile etc. It is the function of stylistic device used in the text that is of essential importance for a translator.

A translator always tries to «improve» an author’s text, using different devices but it frequently results in failure. One of the reasons for it is the peculiarity of the source language word usage. The other reason that causes difficulties for a translator is the national peculiarities of the stylistic systems of different languages.

Thus, in order to reach the main goal of translation and convey the content of the source language text completely in the target language text it is necessary to pay special attention to using stylistic devices of translation, which are called figures of speech.

Figure of speech is a stylistic or rhetorical figure, i.e. a language stylistic phrase, which lies in special syntactic organization of expression for obtaining correspondent expressive and figurative effect.

Figures of speech are divided into 3 main groups:

1. Lexical devices of literary expressiveness (or trops).

2. Syntactic devices of literary expressiveness (figures of speech properly).

3. Phonetic devices of literary expressiveness.

I. Trops include:

1. Metaphor, which means the transference of a meaning from one word to another on the base of resemblance of subjects and phenomena.

The transference of meaning takes place when there is a resemblance in place of location, forms, feelings etc.

For example:

Warm water – тепла вода	Warm relationship – теплі стосунки
Cold rain – холодний дощ	Cold glance – холодний погляд
Foot of boot – підошва черевика	Foot of mountain – підошва гори
Golden watch – золотий годинник	Golden hair – золоте волосся

The first two examples demonstrate resemblance in feelings; the third – resemblance in place of location; the fourth – resemblance in colour.

In its own turn, metaphor includes:

1. Personification – a figure of speech in which objects acquire human qualities, which means that personified object can behave as a human being. It can speak, think, feel, move etc.

For example:

Adieu! Adieu! My native shore Fades o’er the waters blue; The night-winds sigh, the breakers roar, And shriek the wild sea-mew … (G.G. Byron «Childe Harold’s Pilgrimages»)

The moon and stars warn us by their tarnish

2. Symbol – a stable assimilation.

For example:

Knowledge is light, ignorance is darkness	Знання – світло, незнання – темрява
Undoubting Thomas (A person, who is difficult to convince, a sceptic)	Невіруючий Фома
A rose is a symbol of love	Троянда – символ кохання

3. Allegory – is a figure of speech, widely used in fables, when for example animals reveal vices of people etc.

There exists a classification of metaphors in the stylistic theory:

1) A simple metaphor. It is expressed by one image but not always of one word. For example: «Sometimes too hot the eye of heaven shines» etc.

2) An extended metaphor. It consists of a few metaphorically used words that create a single image. An extended metaphor includes the rank of simple metaphors that are interrelated and add each other. They intensify the motivation of an image by repeated connection of the same two plans and their parallel functioning. We can trace it by the example of 26th sonnet of W. Shakespeare:

«Lord of my love, to whom in vassalage

The merit hath my duty strongly knit,

To thee I send this written embassage,

To witness duty, not to show my wit».

3) A traditional metaphor. The metaphors generally accepted in some period or in some literary direction are called traditional metaphors. Thus, the English poets, describing the appearance of beautiful women widely used such traditional, permanent metaphorical epithets, as «pearly teeth», «coral lips», «ivory neck», «hair of golden wire» etc. A metaphorical epithet needs pointing of similarities and dissimilarities, semantic mismatch, violation of well-formedness etc. There are animistic metaphorical epithets when living creature characteristics are attached to inanimate objects, for example: «an angry sky» etc. or anthropomorphous metaphorical epithets that attach human properties and actions to an animal or an object «laughing valleys», «surly sullen bells» etc.

4) A compositional metaphor. It is realized at the level of a text. It can extend at a full novel. A compositional metaphor is met in numerous works of literature, for example, such as «Ulysses» by J. Joyce, «The Centaur» by John Updike etc.

A metaphor is not limited by a sphere of language and by words only. The thinking processes of a man are themselves largely metaphorical. The conceptual system of a man is determined metaphorically. Metaphors become possible as linguistic expressions owing to the existence of metaphors in the conceptual system of a person. Consequently, metaphors are to be understood as metaphorical concepts.

Thus, a metaphor is identified thanks to the presence of the artistic beginning in it. It necessarily supposes this or that extent of artistry. There could not be metaphors deprived of artistry, as jokes deprived of humour. Of course, there are tasteless metaphors, but there is the artistry in them as well, even if it was not worth of remembering or could be expressed much better.

2. Metonymy means transference of a meaning from one word to another on the base of contiguity or comparison or, in other words, it is the figure of speech in which a term denoting one thing is used to refer to a related thing.

Metonymy takes place when:

I. the name of content is substituted by the name of the vessel:

I ate three dishes	Я з’їв три тарілки
I drank two cups	Я випив дві чашки

II. the name of the thing is substituted by the name of material from which it is made:

Bohemian glass	Богемське скло
Porcelain and Bronze on the table	Фарфор і бронза на столі

III. the name of work is substituted by author’s name:

I read Shevchenko	Я читав Шевченка
I am reading Shakespeare	Я читаю Шекспіра

IV. the name of people is substituted by the name of a city or country:

Ukraine celebrates the holiday	Україна святкує
Kharkiv enjoys festival	Харків проводить фестиваль

V. the abstract is substituted by the concrete:

The authorities were greeted

Представників влади привітали

The distance, event, notion, logic etc. relations between different categories that belong to the reality and its reflection in a human mind fixed by the meanings of words can serve the basis of metonymy. It can be relations between objects, actions, processes, phenomena, social institutes and events, place, time etc. When translating a metonymy it is of great importance to take into account its using in a context, its extralinguistic hidden motive, if it is present, otherwise a metonymy will be distorted and the whole work will lose its previous aspect at the same time.

3. Synecdochemeans substitution of a whole by some of its parts or vice versa

Synecdoche is closely related to a metonymy and is considered to be a subclass of it. It is more distantly related to other figures of speech, such as a metaphor. For example:

The hall applauded	Зал аплодував
The audience rejoiced	Публіка тріумфувала

More rigorously, a metonymy and synecdoche may be considered as sub-species of a metaphor, intending it as a type of conceptual substitution. Synecdoche is frequently used to emphasize an important aspect of a fictional character, especially in the poetry.

4. Epithet is a descriptive word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a person or thing, which has become a fixed formula.

Epithet is one of basic stylistic devices of the poetry that is designed to underline the characteristics, determining quality of a definite object or phenomenon and to enrich semantic fields in which they are used by a new emotional or semantic nuance. For example:

Golden heart	Золоте серце
Faded dreams	Згаслі мрії
Forgotten grieves	Забуті печалі

The adjectives are mainly used as epithets by transferring their indirect lexical meanings to the direct and the basic ones that distinguish them from attributes. In linguistics, an epithet can only be a metaphor. Epithets are sometimes attached to a person’s name. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative.

5. Similemeans resemblance of a subject or phenomenon with another one, when bothcompared elements are being mentioned.

A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the word «like» or «as».

As beautiful as a flower	Гарна, як квітка
As pale as a sheet	Білий, як полотно

Similes are widely used in literature for their expressiveness as a figure of speech. Simile’s mobile syntactic structure and expansion of time and distance aspects make it distinguishable from a metaphor where adverbial modifier of time and place are inadmissible that is used as predicates in the sentence.

6. Hyperbolameans intensifying (exaggeration) one certain feature of an object.

Hyperbola is used for intensifying expressiveness and underlining the thought told.

I was scared to death	Я був наляканий до смерті
I have told you hundred times	Я казав тобі сотню разів
We have not seen each other for ages	Ми не бачилися сто років

Hyperbola is frequently connected with the other stylistic devices, giving them a corresponding colouring, such as hyperbolical similes, metaphors etc.

7. Litota means underestimation of a certain feature of an object.

Litota contains the literary underestimation of a quantity, strength or meaning of a described subject or phenomenon.

We inched our way home

Ми поволі поверталися додому

8. Periphrasismeans substitution of the name of a given word by the descriptive construction or phrase or it is a device by which a grammatical category or relationship is expressed by a free morpheme (typically one or more function words modifying a content word).

Gas – Газ	Blue fuel – Блакитне паливо
Oil – Нафта	Black gold – Чорне золото, вугілля, нафта
The USA – США	The land of opportunities – Країна великих можливостей, США
Moon – Місяць	Night light – Нічне світло, Місяць
A Lion – Лев	King of beasts – Цар звірів, Лев

Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by describing but not naming it.

9. Oxymoron means а phrase which unite two opposite words to show discrepancy of the things, which are described, or it is a figure of speech that combines two contradictory terms.

Pleasant trouble	Приємні клопоти
Cruel kindness	Жорстока доброта
Boastfully modest	Жахлива скромність
Dry rain	Сухий дощ
Ice smile	Льодяна посмішка
Sweet sorrow	Солодка печаль
Serious Joke	Серйозний жарт
Silent Scream	Мовчазний крик
O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Mis-shapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! (Shakespeare’s «Romeo and Juliet»)

Oxymoron is a stylistic device close to a metaphor and hyperbola by its essence. The peculiarity of oxymoron is characterized by using combinations of contrasting, contrary meaning words that results in appearing new semantic quality and expressive effects. Interestingly, oxymoron is not a senseless combination of unconnected words that gives only a complete objection. It can really create new notions. For example, the phrase «hot ice» used in the modern culture, as an expression of sport meaning will probably mean that «hot fight» for victory takes place. Thus, the question is not about «ice» as such but about high competitive spirit. It is an example of a new sense, a new notion that appeared from the use of oxymoron.

10. Ironymeans a language phrase consisting of words, which have meaning opposite to their direct meaning with derisive and critical relation of an author to an object described or it is a literary or rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or discordance between what one says or does and what one means or what is generally understood.

As clear as mud	Чистий як сажа
Great idea!	Чудова ідея!
I hear they do fine work	Я чув вони добре попрацювали
Even if I told the truth, nobody would believe me	Навіть якщо я скажу правду, мені ніхто не повірить

The modern theories of rhetoric distinguish between three types of irony: verbal, dramatic and situational.

Verbal irony is a non-correspondence of expression and intention or, in the other words, when a speaker says one thing but means another, or when a literal meaning is contrary to its effect intended. Sarcasm is an example of this.

Dramatic irony is a non-correspondence of expression and awareness or when words and actions possess a significance that the listener or audience understands, but the speaker or character does not.

Situational irony is a non-correspondence of intention and result or when the result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected effect.

II. Syntactic devices of literary expressiveness:

a. Anaphorameans repeating a sequence of words at the beginnings of neighboring clauses, thereby emphasizing them.

Ye who love the haunts of Nature, Love the sunshine of the meadow, Love the shadow of the forest, Love the wind among the branches… (H.W. Longfellow «The Song of Hiawatha»)

What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp? (W. Blake «The Tiger»)

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair… (Ch. Dickens «A Tale of Two Cities»)

2. Epithorameans repetition of the finishing element of the sentence or repetition of the same word or words at the end of phrases, clauses or sentences.

…The woods are lovely, dark and d eep. But I have promises to k eep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. (Robert Frost «Stopping by Woods on a snowy Evening»)

…And gentle winds and waters n ear, Make music to the lovely ear. Each flower the dews have lightly w et, And in the sky the stars are m et, And on the wave is deeper bl ue, And on the leaf a browner h ue, And in the heaven that clear obsc ure, So softly dark, and darkly p ure, Which follows the decline of d ay, As twilight melts beneath the moon aw ay. (G.G. Byron «Twilight»)

3. Tautologymeans repetition of a word of the same root for emphasizing or it is an unnecessary or unessential repetition of a meaning, using different and dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing twice.

He sat alone by himself	Він сидів на одинці
Forward planning	Перспективне планування
Suddenly, without warning	Несподівано, без попередження
I can see it with my own eyes	Я можу побачити все на власні очі
I made it with my own hands	Я зробив це своїми руками

A repetition of а meaning may be intended to amplify or emphasize a certain aspect of the thing discussed. It is a way of formulating a description as an explanation when the real reason for the phenomena cannot be independently derived.

4. Repetitionmeans using one and the same language element in order to emphasize its meaning or is it just the simple repetition of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words.

…Keeping time, time, time In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells, From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. (E.A. «Poe The Bells»)

Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! (A. Tennyson «Song»)

5. Gradationmeans repetition of synonym words, when each next of them intensify the meaning of the previous one.

Come, saw and won	Прийшов, побачив, переміг
Smile, laugh, giggle	Посміхатися, сміятися, реготати

6. Inversionmeans replacement or re-arrangement of words, retreating from the ordinary order in the sentence.

«Only then have I made my mind to go there»

Othello says: «Rude am I in my speech», addressing to the noble audience

Inversion is one of the stylistic devices that means unusual word-order in a sentence with obvious violation of syntactic construction for the sake of the emotional-semantic expressiveness of the definite utterance.

Inversion is used mainly in lyric poetry.

7. Preteritionmeans broken sentence to hint at a thought unfinished.

–«Still looking for your boot?» – «Yes, sir, and mean to find it». – «But surely, you said that it was a new brown boot?» – «So it was, sir. And now it’s an old black one». – «What! you don’t mean to say -?» – «That’s just what I do mean to say». (A. Conan Doyle «The Hound of the Baskervilles»)

– Все ще розшукуєте свою пропажу? – Так, розшукую и не заспокоюсь, доки не знайду. – Але, мені здається, ви говорили про новий світло-коричньовий черевик? – Так, сер. А тепер та ж історія з чорним. – Як! Невже ви кинулись і…? – Саме так! Переклад: Камалія Готті

8. Ellipsismeans omission of a word or word-combination in the sentence or, in the other words, it is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the source language text.

See you tomorrow	Побачимося (з тобою) завтра
Have a good time	(Бажаю) Приємно провести час

9. Rhetorical exclamationmeans a question that you ask as a way of making a statement, without expecting an answer.

Don’t you care what I do?	Хіба тобі небайдуже, що я роблю?
Do you think I understand nothing?	Гадаєш, я нічого не розумію?

10. Antithesismeans intended emphasizing and matching two opposite notions.

Ice and fire	Лід і полум’я
Love and selfishness	Любов і егоїзм

11. Refrainmeans repetition a part of the text from time to time. As a syntactic device of the literary expressiveness refrain is mostly used in songs.

III. Phonetic devices of literary expressiveness:

1. Assonance meanssimilarity in the vowel sounds of words that are close together in a poem or it is a refrain of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences.

Hear the m e llow w e dding b e lls (Edgar Allan Poe «The Bells»)

If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken. (Rudyard Kipling «If…»)

My soul is dark – Oh! Quickly string The harp I yet can brook to hear; And let thy gentle fingers fling Its melting murmurs o’er mine ear. (G.G. Byron «My Soul is Dark»)

a. Alliteration means using several words together that begin with the same sound or letter in order to make a special effect, especially in poetry or it is a repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of several words in close succession.

T it for t at	Зуб за зуб
B etwixt and b etween	Ні те, ні се
S ing a s ong of s ixpence A pocket full of rye; Four-and-twenty b lack b irds B aked in a pie. When the pie was opened, The b irds b egan to sing, Wasn’t that a d ainty d ish To set before the King?

Of course, using any of the given devices depends on the style of a text which is translated. Thus, scientific and official styles are devoid of stylistic colouring and using these devices isn’t their characteristic feature. While colloquial, publicist and belles-lettres styles can use the variety of them in order to fully convey the idea and content of the source language text.