I. Language and Extralinguistic World 3 страница

In the theory of special translation the attention is paid to the terms and clichés. The terms form groups of professional character that serve the different areas of knowledge. The terms with notions they define form the closed systems, which should be learned to work successfully in the economic, technical, social, political and other types of translation. Independently on the area of knowledge the translation of the texts rich with terminology and clichés, is related to the only circle of problems, the aggregate of which is the theory of the special translation properly. Thus, one and the same theory of the special translation serves the opposite areas of knowledge, for example, space and agriculture, jurisprudence and bioengineering. The special translation accumulates different types of translation, among which the social, political, technical etc. come forward into the first place.

Thus, the science about translation must have the general theory of translation, which covers all that is typical for any type of communication with the use of two languages.

The theories described above belong to the general theory of translation and include the theory of written translation, the theory of oral translation, the theory of fiction literature translation etc. The process of translation is always related to two concrete languages.

The translation specified by two languages is not considered to be general but is the partial theory of translation, within the framework of which a comparison of two languages should be done a lot.

From the one hand, the comparison of two languages, means returning into linguistics, and from the other hand, it gives a great number of material for a general theory to translation. The comparative study of two languages is not a theory of translation in the essence by oneself. It is related to the grammar, lexicology, stylistics etc. The comparative study of two languages gets the translating specificity, if it takes place in the process of translation and if the comparison of texts in translation does not become end in itself but a means of cognition of the process of translation. The conclusions got as a result of comparison of two languages from position of tasks and science purposes about translation have a matter mainly for the partial theory of translation.

The comparison of two languages not in the translation generally, but in the concrete type of translation, for example, in machine, oral, written, special translation etc. is the basis of the partial theory of machine translation, the partial theory of written translation, partial theory of fiction literature translation etc.

VI. Stylization in the Process of Translation

Generally speaking, stylization means using in the process of translation such language devices, which have no stylistic correspondences in the source language text. Thus, stylization requires translating the typical peculiarities of author’s individual style or completes re-orienting the style of the text that leads to losing basic common features of the target language text comparing with the source language text.

Science which studies variation in the language (style) dependently on the situation in which language is used and also the effect the writer or speaker wants to create for the reader or listener is called stylistics.

Style can be defined as a variety or modification of the literary language; manner of language expressing in different areas, conditions and forms of communication (oral or written); selection and usage of language resources in different literary genres; the art of a word.

A language as the social phenomenon accomplishes different functions related to one or the other sphere of human activity. The major public functions of a language include intercourse, reporting and influence. The separate varieties of a language were formed to realize these functions. These varieties are characterized by the presence of special lexical and phraseological devices etc. that are used exceptionally or mainly in the given variety of a language. These varieties are called functional styles. Being closely interconnected with the content, purposes and tasks of an utterance, the styles differentiated by interlinguistic signs that are the principles of selection, combination and organization of the national language devices.

Thus, functioning in different areas of public life, a language acquires typical stylistic features, which unite language sings in the system of functional styles according to their functional intention and role.

In English five main styles are distinguished:

1. Scientific style (function of reporting).

2. Official style (function of reporting).

3. Publicist style (function of influence).

4. Belles-lettres style (function of influence).

5. Colloquial style (function of communication).

It should be marked that the mentioned styles are frequently intertwined; therefore, for example, a function of influence, reporting and communication can be accomplished in the publicist style at the same time. Combination of two functions such as aesthetic and communicative is typical for the language of fiction literature.

The basic part of the linguistic material used in any functional style consists of the general linguistic and interstylistic devices. The functional styles do not form the closed systems, as there is wide interaction between these styles. At the same time there is a tendency to strengthen differentiation of the language devices into separate styles that allows to speak about forming of new styles, such, as popular scientific, industrial and technical styles etc. Though popular scientific, industrial and technical styles possess undoubted originality of the used language devices in them, must not be torn away from the scientific style that generated them with which they are interconnected by the function of reporting and the major lexical and grammatical resources.

Owing to developing the system of language on the whole and to continuous interaction of the functional styles their limits are undergoing changes in time. Characterizing any style, it is necessary to take into account the separate stylistic categories that form the system of the given style. Most frequently styles are compared on the basis of their lexical filling, as the distinction between them is well seen in area of vocabulary.

The functional styles can be divided into two groups, related to the special types of speech. The first group that includes scientific, publicist and official styles characterizes monologue speech. For the second group formed by different types of colloquial style, the dialogic speech is a typical form.

Each one of the given styles is characterized by the particular features, which help to define it, and to choose out the most appropriate words and word-combinations in the process of translation.

1. Scientific style is characterized by the following features:

1. Subjectivity.

2. Objectivity.

3. Generalization.

4. Precision.

5. Laconic brevity.

6. Cogency.

7. Analysis.

8. Synthesis.

9. Argumentation.

10. Logic sequence of introducing information.

11. Monosemantic nature of words and word-combinations (predominantly terms).

12. Conclusions.

Scientific style belongs to the book styles of the literary language that are characterized by general conditions of functioning and linguistic devices such as its preliminary deliberation of utterance, monologue character, strict selection of language devices and language standardization.

The development of the scientific style is caused by the evolution of different areas of scientific knowledge, the varied areas of human activity.

The characteristics of the scientific style are its self-descriptiveness, richness of content, logicality or strict sequence, distinct connection between a basic idea and details, exactness and objectivity etc. Separate texts belonging to the given style can possess these features in a greater or lesser extent. However, the texts of scientific style mainly use linguistic devices that satisfy the requirements of the given area of intercourse.

A scientific style is widely used. It is one of the styles that have strong influence on the literary language. The scientific and technical revolution introduces an enormous quantity of terms into universal language practice.

A term is a word or combination of words that name an object, a phenomenon or science notion exactly and unambiguously.

With the development of science the monosemantic special terms can acquire connotations and become the multiple-valued scientific terms, and the latter one can lose the values and become monosemantic terms.

Both the words exceptionally used within the framework of the given style, and special meanings of the national words can be applied as terms. Terms must provide the exact pointing on the real objects and phenomena, and set the single meaning understood by the specialists of the information passed. Therefore the special requirements are set to this type of words.

First and foremost, a term must be exact, i.e. have the strictly defined meaning that can be exposed by logical determination. For example, if some quantity is called «scalar» («скаляр»), then the meaning of this term must correspond to the determination of notion «a quantity that has magnitude but no direction» which links it with the other notions used in determination as «magnitude», «direction». If some detail of a scope is called «viewfinder» (видошукач), this term only must designate this detail that accomplish definite functions, and no other parts of the given device or some other device.

On the same reasons a term must be monosemantic and independent of a context. In the other words, it must have the exact meaning indicated by its determination in all cases of its using in a text.

A term must be a part of the strict logical system. The meanings of terms and their determination must be submitted to the rules of logical classification, distinctly distinguishing objects and notions without vagueness or contradiction.

And, finally, a term must be the especially objective name, deprived of some secondary meanings that distract attention of the reader. In this connection a term must be deprived of the emotionality, metaphorical meaning, any associations etc.

However, terms only do not make a vocabulary. With the exception of terms scientific style uses scientific and common-used words. The most numerous among the lexical and stylistic devices used in the scientific literature are similes. The phenomena are realized by similarity and analogies that are necessary for determining identity of the object, fact, process described.

Determination of the phenomena by using descriptions with the help of the exact data (numbers, pictures, graphs etc.) is the characteristic feature of the scientific style. However, if the exact data are absent, the analogy is widely used in the scientific text.

The aim of the scientific style is to inform about results of scientific research, give explanations, systematize knowledge etc, which can be reached with the help of using particular language devices such as terms, schemes, tables, scientific stable expressions, quotations, references, complex syntactic constructions, so on.

For example:

Direct current motors have been widely used in many industrial applications such as electric vehicles, steel rolling mills, electric cranes, and robotic manipulators due to precise, wide, simple, and continuous control characteristics. Traditionally rheostatic armature control method was widely used for the speed control of low power direct current motors. However the controllability, cheapness, higher efficiency, and higher current carrying capabilities of static power converters brought a major change in the performance of electrical drives. Speed control of separately excited DC motor. American Journal of Applied Sciences, March, 2008 by Moleykutty George.

Двигуни постійного току широко використовувалися в багатьох промислових галузях у якості електромобілів, сталепрокатних станів, електричних кранів та маніпуляційних роботів завдяки таким характеристикам регулювання, як точність, простота, легкість і довготривалість використання. Традиційно склалося, що метод реостатного регулювання струму та напруги значною мірою використовувався для керування швидкості роботи двигунів постійного току при низьких затратах енергії. Однак, керованість, дешевина, висока ефективність та високе допустиме навантаження статичних інверторів призвело до суттєвої зміни у функціонуванні електричних двигунів. Переклад: Камалія Готті.

2. Official style is characterized by the following features:

1. Documentary.

2. Standard arrangement of a material.

3. Stability (using traditionally established forms).

4. Laconic brevity.

5. Precision.

6. Narrative character of exposition.

7. High standardization of expression.

8. Strict text regulation.

9. Tendency to the use of difficult suggestions reflecting the logical submission of some facts to the other ones.

10. Almost complete absence of emotional and expressive linguistic devices.

Among book styles the official style is notable for its relative stability. Of course in time it is exposed to some changes caused by the character of the content itself. But many of its features that have been formed historically such as specific vocabulary including phraseology, syntactic constructions give it conservative tone.

The typical feature of the official style is a presence of numerous language standards or clichés. If in the other styles stereotyped constructions turn out to be a stylistic failure, they are perceived as its fully natural belonging in the official style texts.

Many types of business documents have the generally accepted forms of exposition and arrangement of its material. It is not accidental that the prepared forms intended to fill only are used in business practice. Official style is a style of documents such as international agreements, state acts, legal laws, regulations, instructions, office correspondence, business papers etc.

Heterogeneity of themes and variety of genres allow distinguishing two varieties in the official style such as official documentary style and official business style. In the same turn, it is possible to mark out the language of the legislative documents in the official documentary style. In the official business style an office correspondence between establishments and organizations and private business papers are differed by their content, genres and character of the used linguistic devices.

The aim of the official style is to regulate official business relationships of the participants involved in state official and industrial areas, which can be reached by using standardized official vocabulary (clichés), complex sentences, strict logic introducing of information, strict regulation of placing and building the text, absence of author’s language individuality, limitation of synonymy etc.

For example:

CONVENTION for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Article 5 Right to liberty and security 1.Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No one shall be deprived of his liberty save in the following cases and in accordance with a procedure prescribed by law: 1. the lawful detention of a person after conviction by a competent court; 2. the lawful arrest or detention of a person for non-compliance with the lawful order of a court or in order to secure the fulfilment of any obligation prescribed by law; 3. the lawful arrest or detention of a person effected for the purpose of bringing him before the competent legal authority on reasonable suspicion of having committed an offence or when it is reasonably considered necessary to prevent his committing an offence or fleeing after having done so; 4. the detention of a minor by lawful order for the purpose of educational supervision or his lawful detention for the purpose of bringing him before the competent legal authority; 5. the lawful detention of persons for the prevention of the spreading of infectious diseases, of persons of unsound mind, alcoholics or drug addicts or vagrants; 6. the lawful arrest or detention of a person to prevent his effecting an unauthorised entry into the country or of a person against whom action is being taken with a view to deportation or extradition. 2. Everyone who is arrested shall be informed promptly, in a language which he understands, of the reasons for his arrest and of any charge against him. 3. Everyone arrested or detained in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1.c of this article shall be brought promptly before a judge or other officer authorised by law to exercise judicial power and shall be entitled to trial within a reasonable time or to release pending trial. Release may be conditioned by guarantees to appear for trial. 4. Everyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings by which the lawfulness of his detention shall be decided speedily by a court and his release ordered if the detention is not lawful. 5. Everyone who has been the victim of arrest or detention in contravention of the provisions of this article shall have an enforceable right to compensation. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Electronic Information System for International Law. 22 October 2007.

КОНВЕНЦІЯ про захист прав людини і основоположних свобод Стаття 5 Право на свободу та особисту недоторканність   1. Кожен має право на свободу та особисту недоторканність. Нікого не може бути позбавлено свободи, крім таких випадків і відповідно до процедури, встановленої законом: a) законне ув’язнення особи після засудження її компетентним судом; b) законний арешт або затримання особи за невиконання законного припису суду або для забезпечення виконання будь-якого обов’язку, встановленого законом; c) законний арешт або затримання особи, здійснене з метою допровадження її до компетентного судового органу за наявності обґрунтованої підозри у вчиненні нею правопорушення або якщо обґрунтовано вважається необхідним запобігти вчиненню нею правопорушення чи її втечі після його вчинення; d) затримання неповнолітнього на підставі законного рішення з метою застосування наглядових заходів виховного характеру або законне затримання неповнолітнього з метою допровадження його до компетентного органу; e) законне затримання осіб для запобігання поширенню інфекційних захворювань, законне затримання психічнохворих, алкоголіків або наркоманів чи бродяг; f) законний арешт або затримання особи з метою запобігання її недозволеному в’їзду в країну чи особи, щодо якої провадиться процедура депортації або екстрадиції. 2. Кожен, кого заарештовано, має бути негайно поінформований зрозумілою для нього мовою про підстави його арешту і про будь-яке обвинувачення, висунуте проти нього. 3. Кожен, кого заарештовано або затримано згідно з положеннями підпункту «c» пункту 1 цієї статті, має негайно постати перед суддею чи іншою посадовою особою, якій закон надає право здійснювати судову владу, і йому має бути забезпечено розгляд справи судом упродовж розумного строку або звільнення під час провадження. Таке звільнення може бути обумовлене гарантіями з’явитися на судове засідання. 4. Кожен, кого позбавлено свободи внаслідок арешту або тримання під вартою, має право ініціювати провадження, в ході якого суд без зволікання встановлює законність затримання і приймає рішення про звільнення, якщо затримання є незаконним. 5. Кожен, хто є потерпілим від арешту або затримання, здійсненого всупереч положенням цієї статті, має забезпечене правовою санкцією право на відшкодування. Європейська конвенція про захист прав людини і основоположних свобод. Із змінами і доповненнями, внесеними Протоколом N 11 від 11 травня 1994 року.

CONVENTION for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Article 10 Freedom of expression 1. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises. 2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. Electronic Information System for International Law. 22 October 2007.

КОНВЕНЦІЯ про захист прав людини і основоположних свобод Стаття 10 Свобода вираження поглядів   1. Кожен має право на свободу вираження поглядів. Це право включає свободу дотримуватися своїх поглядів, одержувати і передавати інформацію та ідеї без втручання органів державної влади і незалежно від кордонів. Ця стаття не перешкоджає державам вимагати ліцензування діяльності радіомовних, телевізійних або кінематографічних підприємств. 2. Здійснення цих свобод, оскільки воно пов’язане з обов’язками і відповідальністю, може підлягати таким формальностям, умовам, обмеженням або санкціям, що встановлені законом і є необхідними в демократичному суспільстві в інтересах національної безпеки, територіальної цілісності або громадської безпеки, для запобігання заворушенням чи злочинам, для охорони здоров’я чи моралі, для захисту репутації чи прав інших осіб, для запобігання розголошенню конфіденційної інформації або для підтримання авторитету і безсторонності суду. Європейська конвенція про захист прав людини і основоположних свобод. Із змінами і доповненнями, внесеними Протоколом N 11 від 11 травня 1994 року.

Publicist style is characterized by the following features:

1. Logic argumentation.

2. Brevity of exposition of a material when there is a plenty of information.

3. Precision of expressing the scientific statements.

4. Selection of the linguistic devices easily understood (especially it concerns to newspapers that are one of the most widespread types of mass information).

5. The use of language stereotypes or clichés, which are typical for the given style.

6. Emotional and expressive figurativeness.

7. Using the variety of lexical and stylistic devices such as epithets, similes, metaphors etc.

8. Presence of social and political vocabulary and phraseology.

In the publicist style the linguistic function of influence (the agitations and propagandas) and informative function (the report of news) that combined distinctly are realized. In publicist style texts the questions of wide thematic variety that are of interest for society such as political, economic, moral, philosophical, cultural, educational, every day life etc. are affected. The publicist style finds an application in social and political literature, periodic printing (newspapers, magazines), political statements etc.

Not all of the indicated features are evenly presented in all newspaper genres, and not all of them are typical for publicist style. Hard stylistic fixedness of lexical and grammatical devices is a comparatively rare phenomenon. However, their primary usage in any style, adaptation of words, words-expressions and language constructions of one style for the purposes of the other one, i.e. their functional usage, is a characteristic feature of the publicist style.

The distinction in the stylistic description of the separate newspaper genres is related to their different functions. Some genres, such as chronicle note, reporting, interview, correspondence etc. pursue, first of all, informing purposes and are close to an official style or business language by the methods of presenting information.

The newspaper articles are written in the publicist style. The themes, exactness of word usage, standardization of language in organization of linguistic material, support on the data of modern science, make these articles close to the scientific works.

An interpretation expressed with using the social and political vocabulary relates them to publicist style as well. Finally, such genres as essay, satirical article, and pamphlet combine the peculiarities of the publicist and belles-lettres styles.

Depending on the theme and genre in the publicist style a various vocabulary and phraseology is widely used. Some part of it is made by the social and political vocabulary and word-combinations fixed in the publicist style such as «democracy», «democratic freedoms», «election campaign», «agitational propaganda», «progressive», «political party», «political demonstration», «strike» etc.

The considerable part of the vocabulary of newspaper style is made by the general literary words and different terms that belong to the area of science, art, sport etc. They can be reconsidered and acquire a publicist colouring in the context, for example, «cockpit», «friendly atmosphere», «cultural contacts», «next round of talks» etc.

The different language stereotypes (clichés) are widespread in the newspapers. Such phenomenon is explained by the accessible perception of the information by the readers and listeners. This is the easy reproduction of the stereotyped language formulas, automation of the process of reproduction, facilitation of communication that permits to save efforts and time.

Not infrequently the clichés that are often used become stock phrases and lose the figurativeness. For example, such expressions as «give the green light», «black gold», «blue fuel» etc. became stereotyped.

However, it should be noted that the tendency to standardization of the newspaper’s language is opposed to the tendency to strengthening the expressiveness, filling the narration with words and word-combinations from other styles, in particular, from the colloquial one. Many publicist genres such as essay, satirical article, pamphlet, polemic article etc. are characterized by the free use of resources of the national language, including its expressive devices (epithets, metaphors, similes etc.).

The publicist articles are remarkable for their large emotional content, enthusiasm and pathos, while the force of their influence is naturally related with the brightness and expressiveness of the language.

The aim of the publicist style is to discuss, dispute and propagandize essential public ideas, assist in public development, solve public and political problems, influence on readers actively, encourage activity, which can be reached by using public and political terms, emotionally and expressively coloured words, rhetorical questions, repetitions, exclamations, intonation of expression (irony, sarcasm, admiration, anger etc.), precise names of events, dates, places and participants, polysemantic nature of words, which can influence on readers most of all.

For example: