Graphon. Graphical Means

Graphons, indicating irregularities or carelessness of pronunciation were occasionally introduced into English novels and journalism as early as the beginning of the eighteenth century and since then have acquired an ever growing frequency of usage, popularity among writers, journalists, advertizers, and a continuously widening scope of functions.

Graphon proved to be an extremely concise but effective means of supplying information about the speaker's origin, social and educational background, physical or emotional condition, etc. So, when the famous Thackeray's character - butler Yellowplush - impresses his listeners with the learned words pronouncing them as "sellybrated" (celebrated), "bennyviolent" (benevolent), "illygitmit" (illegitimate), "jewinile" (juvenile), or when the no less famous Mr. Babbitt uses "peerading" (parading), "Eytalians" (Italians), "peepul" (people) - the reader obtains not only the vivid image and the social, cultural, educational characteristics of the personages, but also both Thackeray's and S. Lewis' sarcastic attitude to them.

On the other hand, "The b-b-b-b-bas-tud - he seen me c--c-c-c-coming" in R. P. Warren's Sugar Boy's speech or "You don't mean to thay that thith ith your firth time" (B.C.) show the physical defects of the speakers - the stuttering of one and the lisping of the other.

Graphon, thus individualizing the character's speech, adds to his plausibility, vividness, memorability. At the same time, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act. Some amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation, became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue: "gimme" (give me), "lemme" (let me), "gonna" (going to), "gotta" (got to), "coupla" (couple of), "mighta" (might have), "willya" (will you), etc.

This flavour of informality and authenticity brought graphon popularity with advertizers. Big and small eating places invite customers to attend their "Pik-kwik store", or "The Donut (doughnut) Place", or the "Rite Bread Shop", or the "Wok-in Fast Food Restaurant", etc. The same is true about newspaper, poster and TV advertizing: "Sooper Class Model" cars, "Knee-hi" socks, "Rite Aid" medicines. A recently published book on Cockney was entitled by the authors "The Muwer Tongue"; on the back flaps of big freight-cars one can read "Folio me", etc. Graphical changes may reflect not only the peculiarities of, pronunciation, but are also used to convey the intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the stressed words. To such purely graphical means, not involving the violations, we should refer all changes of the type (italics, capitalization), spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of lines. The latter was widely exercised in Russian poetry by V. Mayakovsky, famous for his "steps" in verse lines, or A. Voznesensky. In English the most often referred to "graphical imagist" v/as E. E. Cummings.

According to the frequency of usage, variability of functions, the first place among graphical means of foregrounding is occupied by italics. Besides italicizing words, to add to their logical or emotive significance, separate syllables and morphemes may also be emphasized by italics (which is highly characteristic of D. Salinger or T. Capote). Intensity of speech (often in commands) is transmitted through the multiplication of a grapheme or capitalization of the word, as in Babbitt's shriek "Alllll aboarrrrrd", or in the desperate appeal in A. Huxley's Brave New World - "Help. Help. HELP." Hyphenation of a wofa suggests the rhymed or clipped manner in which it is uttered as in the humiliating comment from Fl. O'Connor's story - "grinning like a chim-pan-zee".

Summing up the informational options of the graphical arrangement of a word (a line, a discourse), one sees their varied application for recreating the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication act - all aimed at revealing and emphasizing the author's viewpoint

Завдання 8. Indicate the kind of additional information about the speaker supplied by graphon:

1. "Hey," he said, entering the library. "Where's the heart section?" "The what?" He had the thickest sort of southern Negro dialect and the only word that came clear to me was the one that sounded like heart. "How do you spell it," I said.

"Heart, Man, pictures. Drawing books. Where you got them?" "You mean art books? Reproductions?" He took my polysyllabic word for it. "Yea, they's them." (Ph. R.)

2. "It don't take no nerve to do somepin when there ain't nothing else you can do. We ain't gonna die out. People is goin' on - changin' a little may be - but goin' right on." (J. St.)

3. "And remember, Mon-sewer O'Hayer says you got to straighten up this mess sometime today." (J.)

4. "I even heard they demanded sexual liberty. Yes, sir, Sex-You-All liberty." (J. K.)

5. "Ye've a duty to the public don'tcher know that, a duty to the great English public?" said George reproachfully. "Here, lemme handle this, kiddar," said Tiger. "Gorra maintain strength, you," said George. "Ah'm fightin' fit," said Tiger.

6. "Oh, that's it, is it?" said Sam. "I was afeerd, from his manner, that he might ha' forgotten to take pepper with that 'ere last cowcumber, he et. Set down, sir, ve make no extra charge for the settin' down, as the king remarked when he blowed up his ministers." (D.)

7. "Well, I dunno. I'll show you summat." (St.B.)

8. "De old Foolosopher, like Hickey calls yuh, ain't yuh?" (O'N.)

9. "I had a coach with a little seat in fwont with an iwon wail for the dwiver." (D.)

10. "The Count," explained the German officer, "expegs you, chentlemen, at eight-dirty." (С. Н.)

Завдання 9. Think of the causes originating graphon (young age, a physical defect of speech, lack of education, the influence of dialectal norms, affectation, intoxication, carelessness in speech, etc.):

1. He began to render the famous tune "1 lost my heart in an English garden, Just where the roses of Kngland grow" with much feeling:

"Ah-ee last mah-ee hawrt een ahn Angleesh gawrden, Jost whahr thah rawzaz ahv Angland graw." (H.C.)

2. The stuttering film producer S.S. Sisodia was known as 'Whiwhisky because I'm papa partial to a titi tipple; mamadam, my caca card.' (S.R.)

3. She mimicked a lisp: "I don't weally know wevver I'm a good girl. The last thing he'll do would be to be mixed with a hovvid woman." (J.Br.)

4. "All the village dogs are no-'count mongrels, Papa says. Fish-gut eaters and no class a-tall; this here dog, he got insteek." (K.K.)

6. After a hum a beautiful Negress sings "Without a song, the dahaywould nehever end." (U.)

7. "Oh, well, then, you just trot over to the table and make your little mommy a gweat big dwink." (E.A.)

8. "I allus remember me man sayin' to me when I passed me scholarship - "You break one o'my winders an' I'll skin ye alive." (St.B.)

9. He spoke with the flat ugly "a" and withered "r" of Boston Irish, and Levi looked up at him and mimicked "All right, I'll give the caaads a break and staaat playing." (N.M.)

10. "Whereja get all these pictures?" he said. "Meetcha at the corner. Wuddaya think she's doing out there?" (S.)

Завдання 10. State the function of graphon in captions, posters, advertisements, etc. repeatedly used in American press, TV, roadside advertising:

1. Weather forecast for today: Hi 59, Lo 32, Wind lite.

2. We recommend a Sixty seconds meal: Steak-Umm.

3. Choose the plane with "Finah Than Dinah" on its side.

4. Best jeans for this Jeaneration.

5. Follow our advice: Drinka Pinta Milka Day.

6. Terry's Floor Fashions: We make 'em - you walk on 'em

7. Our offer is $ 15.00 per WK.

8. Thanx for the purchase.

9. Everybody uses our wunnerful Rackfeed Drills.

Завдання 11. State the function of graphical organization in the following verse:

Завдання 12. Увага! Наступне завдання є обов’язковим для індивідуального письмового виконання.

V. Analyse the following extract from Artemus Ward:

"Sit down, my fren," sed the man in black close; "yu miskomprehend me. I meen that the perlitercal ellermunts are orecast with black klouds, 4 boden a friteful storm."

"Wall," replide I, "in regard to perlittercal ellerfunts і don't know as how but what they is as good as enny other kind of ellerfunts. But і maik bold to say thay is all a ornery set and unpleasant to hav round. They air powerful hevy eaters and take up a right smart chans of room."

The man in black close rusht up to me and sed, "How dair yu insult my neece, yu horey heded vagabone? Yu base exhibbiter of low wax figgers - you woolf in sheep's close," and sow 4th.

Завдання 12. State the functions and the type of the following graphical expressive means:

1. Piglet, sitting in the running Kanga's pocket, substituting the kidnapped Roo, thinks:

this shall take

"If is I never to

flying really it." (M.)

2. Kiddies and grown-ups too-oo-oo We haven't enough to do-oo-oo. (R. K.)

3. "Hey," he said "is it a goddamn cardroom? or a latrine? Attensh -- HUT! Da-ress right! DHRESS! (J.)

4. "When Will's ma was down here keeping house for him - she used to run in to see me, real often." (S.L.)

5. He missed our father very much. He was s-l-a-i-n in North Africa. (S.)

6. "We'll teach the children to look at things. Don't let the world pass you by, I shall tell them. For the sun, I shall say, open your eyes for that laaaarge sun....." (A. W.)

7. "Now listen, Ed, stop that, now. I'm desperate. I am desperate, Ed, do you hear?" (Dr.)

8. "Adieu you, old man, grey. I pity you, and I de-spise you." (D.)

9. "ALL our troubles are over, old girl," he said fondly. "We can put a bit by now for a rainy day." (S.M.)

10. His voice began on a medium key, and climbed steadily up till it reached a certain point, where it bore with strong emphasis upon the topmost word, and then plunged down as if from a spring board:

Завдання 13. Увага! Наступне завдання обов’язкове для індивідуального письмового виконання.

Завдання: Прочитайте вірш Е. Дікенсон та його стилістичний розбір за графічними засобами увиразнення, зроблений І. Арнольд. Доповніть розбір засобами увиразнення морфологічного, лексичного, синтаксичного та семантичного рівнів.

After great pain, a formal feeling comes —

The Nerves sit ceremonious, like Tombs —

The stiff Heart questions was it He, that bore,

And Yesterday, or Centuries before?

The Feet, mechanical, go round — A Wooden way

Of Ground, or Air, or Ought — i *

Regardless grown,

A Quarts contentment, like a stone —

This is the Hour of Lead —

Remembered, if outlived,

As Freezing persons, recollect the Snow

First — Chill — then Stupor — then the letting go —

Выразительные средства этого стихотворения богаты, разнообразны и тесно взаимосвязаны. Паузы — только один из элементов сложной структуры, вместе с остальными они пере­дают оглушенность, отрешенность и безразличие, оставшиеся после перенесенного страдания. Первое предложение, хотя и содержит оба главных члена и как будто бы формально закон­чено, явно требует пояснения и поэтому может расцениваться как апозиопезис. Надо еще сказать читателю, о каком формаль­ном чувстве говорит поэтесса. Объяснить это трудно. Она останавливается. Смотрит на себя отчужденно, со стороны. Чувствует не она, а нервы, но и они уже только «торжественно восседа­ют как гробницы». После этого неожиданного образа снова пауза. Непонятно, как можно перенести такое. Но спрашивает об этом опять не она сама, а сердце. Оно изумлено: неужели это оно выдержало эту муку и когда это было? Синтаксическая структура нарушается, но паузы нет. Невыносимая боль остано­вила время, и кажется, что все это было вчера, но, может быть, прошли века.

В следующей строке пауз еще больше, длинные паузы ука­заны тире, а короткие — запятыми и обрывом строки. Строфа говорит о безразличии к окружающему, о каком-то окаменении. Продолжается та же метонимия — ходит не сам человек, а его ноги, они передвигаются механически, а человек не отдает себе отчета в том, где он находится; ямб здесь становится очень резко ритмичным, и все синтаксические, ритмические и пунктуаци­онные средства подсказывают короткие паузы: of Ground, or Air, or Ought — A Wooden way. Строфа заканчивается паузой, подобной музыкальному фермато.

Последняя строфа подытоживает все предыдущее — это тяжелый час. Снова пауза. Он не забудется, если его переживешь. Последние строки показывают, что уверенности в этом нет. Со­стояние похоже на состояние замерзающего. Паузы становятся чаще. Стихотворение многозначительно заканчивается не точ­кой, а тире. Конец, таким образом, неизвестен. Читатель вос­принимает многое через просодическую структуру, ритм и па­узы, о которых сигнализирует пунктуация.

Завдання 14. Увага! Наступне завдання обов’язкове для індивідуального письмового виконання.

Завдання: Прочитайте уривок з роману Р. Олдингтона «Смерть ге­роя». Зробіть стилістичний аналіз тексту за графічними засобами увиразнення.

The telegram from the War Office — «regret to inform... killed in action... Their Majesties' sympathy...» — went to the home address in the country, and was opened by Mrs Winterbourne. Such an excitement for her, almost a pleasant change, for it was pretty dull in the country just after the Armistice. She was sitting by the fire, yawning over her twenty-second lover — the affair had lasted nearly a year — when the servant brought the telegram. It was addressed to Mr Winterbourne, but of course she opened it; she had an idea that «one of those women» was «after» her husband, who however, was regrettably chaste, from cowardice.

Mrs Winterbourne liked drama in private life. She uttered a most creditable shriek, clasped both hands to her rather soggy bosom, and pretended to faint. The lover, one of those nice, clean, sporting Englishmen with a minimum of intelligence and an infinite capacity of being gulled by females, especially the clean English sort, clutched her unwillingly and automatically but with quite an Ethel M. Dell appearance of emotion, and exclaimed:

«Darling, what is it? Has he insulted you again?»

Poor old Winterbourne was incapable of insulting anyone, but it was a convention always established between Mrs Winterbourne and her lovers that Winterbourne «insulted» her, when his worst taunt had been to pray earnestly for her conversion to the True Faith, along with the rest of «poor misguided England».

In low moaning tones, founded on the best tradition of sensational fiction, Mrs Winterbourne feebly ejaculated:

«Dead, dead, dead!»

«Who's dead? Winterbourne?»

(Some apprehension perhaps in the attendant Sam Browne — he would have to propose, of course, and might be accepted.)

«They've killed him, those vile, filthy foreigners. My baby son.» Sam Browne, still mystified, read the telegram. He then stood to

attention, saluted (although not wearing a cap), and said solemnly: «A clean sportiоn' death, an Englishman's death.» (When Huns were killed it was neither clean nor sportin', but served the beggars — («......,» among men) — right.)

ІІІ Рекомендована література:

1. Арнольд И. В. Стилистика современного английского языка: (Стилистика декодирования): учеб. пособ. [для студ. пед. ин-тов по спец. “Иностр. яз.”] / Ирина Владимировна Арнольд – 3-е изд. – М.: Просвещение, 1990. – C. 208 –243.

2. Єфімов Л. П. Стилістика англійської мови і дискурсивний аналіз [Уч.-метод. посібн.] / Л. П. Єфімов. – Вінниця: Нова книга, 2004. – C. 34–46. – (англ. мовою).

3. Кухаренко В. А. Интерпретация текста: учеб. [для студ. филолог. специальн.] / Валерия Андреевна Кухаренко. – 3-е изд., испр. – Одесса: Латстар, 2002. – 292 с. – Бибилогр.: С. 286. – (Першотвір).

4. Літературознавчий словник-довідник / За ред. К. Р. Громяка. – К.: Академія, 1997. – 750 с.

5. Kukharenko V. A. A Book of Practice in Stylistics / V. A. Kukharenko. – 3-є вид., стереотипне. – Vinnytsya, 2003. – C. 13–27.