His life in Stratford

Shakespeare's parents. John Shakespeare, William's lather, was a glove maker who owned a shop in the town of Stratford- upon-Avon. Stratford lies about 75 miles (120 kilometers) north­west of London in the county of Warwickshire. John Shakespeare was a respected man in the town and held several important posi­tions in the local government.

William Shakespeare's mother was born Mary Arden. She was the daughter of a fanner but related to a family of considerable social standing in the county. John Shakespeare married Mary Arden about 1557. The Ardens were Roman Catholics. Mary may also have been a Catholic, but the Shakcspeares publicly belonged to the Church of England, the slate church.

Early years. William Shakespeare was bom in Stratford in 1564, the third of eight children. The register of Holy Trinity, the parish church in Stratford, records his baptism on April 26. According to the custom at that time, infants were baptized about three days af­ter their birth. Therefore, the generally accepted date for Shakespeare's birth is April 23.

The Shakespearcs were a family of considerable local prominence. In 1565, John Shakespeare became an alderman. Three years later, he was electedbailiff(mayor), the highest civic honor that a Stratford resident could receive. Later, he held several other civic posts. But toward the end of his life, John Shakespeare had financial problems.

Beginning at about the age of 7, young William Shakespeare probably attended the Stratford grammar school with other boys of his social class. The school's highly qualified teachers were gradu­ates of Oxford University. Students spent about nine hours a day in school. They attended classes the year around, except for three brief holiday periods. The teachers enforced strict discipline and physi­cally punished students who broke the rules. The students chiefly studied Latin, the language of ancient Rome. Knowledge of Latin was necessary for a career in medicine, law, or the church. In addi­tion, Latin was considered a sign of an educated person. Young Shakespeare may have read such outstanding ancient Roman au­thors as Cicero, Ovid, Plautus, Seneca, Terence, and Virgil.

By modern standards, the Stratford grammar school must have been demanding, dull, and strict. And no evidence exists that Shakespeare had any teacher who might have stirred his imagina­tion and brought routine studies alive.

In spite of the long hours he spent in school, Shakespeare's boyhood was probably not all boring study. As a market center, Stratford was a lively town. In addition, holidays provided popular pageants and shows, including plays about the legendary outlaw Robin Hood and his merry men. By 1569, traveling companies of professional actors were perform­ing in Stratford Stratford also held two large fairs each year, which at­tracted numerous visitors from other counties. For young Shakespeare, Stratford could thus have been an exciting place to live in.

Stratford also offered Shakespeare other pleasures. The fields and woods surrounding the town provided opportunities to hunt and trap small game. The River Avon, which ran through the town, had fish to catch. Shakespeare's poems and plays show a love of nature and rural life. This display undoubtedly reflects his child­hood experiences and his love of the Stratford countryside.

Marriage, hi November 1582, Shakespeare received a license io marry Aline Hathaway. She was probably the daughter of a fanner who lived in Shottery, a village about 1 mile (1,6 kilometers) from Stratford. At the time of their marriage, Shakespeare was 18 years old and Anne was 26. Their first child, Susanna, was baptized on May 26, 1583.

The lost years. Early in 1585, Anne Shakespeare gave birth to twins — a boy, Hamnet, and a girl Judith. No significant factual information exists on Shakespeare's life for the period between Feb. 2, 1585, when the twins were baptized, and 1592, when evi­dence indicates Shakespeare was living in London. Scholars some­times call this period the lost years.

Shakespeare's name appears with his parents' names in a Stratford lawsuit in 1588. But he may not have been living in Stratford at that time. Scholars believe that sometime during the lost years Shakespeare moved to London and served a period of apprenticeship in the city's busy theatrical life.

Early career in London First recognition. There is some indication that Shakespeare had become well known in London theatrical life by 1592. That year, a pamphlet appeared with an apparent reference to Shakespeare. This reference suggested he had become both an actor and a playwright. A writer named Robert Greene had writ­ten a letter attacking theater owners, actors, and writers who, he believed, had abused the talents of university-educated play­wrights, such as himself. After his death, the letter was published in a pamphlet called «Greene's Groatsworth [a few cents' worth] of Wit Bought with a Million of Repentance». Most scholars agree that in one passage Greene attacked Shakespeare as an actor who thought he could write plays as well as educated dramatists could. This passage follows, with the Elizabethan spelling and punctua­tion modernized:

...an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his «Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide», supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute «Johannes fac tolum» fJohnny-do-everything], is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.

The line «Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide» pokes fun at a line spoken by the Duke of York in Shakespeare's «Henry VI», Part III. The line is «О tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide».

Following the publication of «Greene's Groatsworth of Wit», Shakespeare must have complained about the attack to Henry Chetlle, Greene's editor. Chettle llicn published an apology in which he appeared to praise Shakespeare as a polite and honest man as well as a fine writer. Part of Chettle's apology follows, with the spelling modernized:

...I am as sorry as if the original fault had been my fault because myself have seen his demeanor no less civil than he excellent in the quality [acting occupation] he professes. Besides, divers of worship [various people of good reputation] have reported his uprightness of dealing, which argues his honesty, and his facetious [polishedj grace in writing, that approves his Art.

His work in theater companies. Sometime after he arrived in London, Shakespeare probably joined one of the city's repertory theater companies. These companies consisted of a permanent cast of actors who presented a variety of plays week after week. The companies were commercial organizations that depended on ad­mission prices for their income. They staged most of the plays Lon­doners attended.

Scholars do not know which theater company or companies Shakespeare joined before 1594. But he was a. sharer (stockholder) of a company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men in 1594. The evidence consists of a record of payment to Shakespeare and his fellow actors for performances by the company at Queen Elizabeth's court. The Lord Chamberlain's Men was one of the most popular acting companies in London. Shakespeare was a leading member of the group for the rest of his carcer. By 1594, at least six of Shakespeare's plays had been produced.

His first poems. From mid-1592 to 1594, London authorities often closed the public theaters because of repeated outbreaks of plague. The need for new plays thus declined. At this time, Shakespeare began to write poems. The Elizabethans considered the writing of poetry much more important than the writing of plays. Shakespeare perhaps believed that by writing poems he might be able to win the praise that mere playwriting never received.

In 1593, Shakespeare's long poem «Venus and Adonis» was printed by Richard Field, a Slratl'ord neighbor who had become a London printer. Shakespeare dedicated the poem to 19-ycar-old Henry Wriothesley, the Earl of Southampton. The poet may have believed that the dedication would win him the carl's favor and support. «Venus and Adonis» quickly became a success.

Field printed Shakespeare's next long poem, «The Rape of Lucrece», in 1594. Shakespeare also dedicated this poem to the Earl of Southampton. The wording of the dedication suggests the possibility that the young nobleman had rewarded the author, prob­ably financially, for his dedication in «Venus and Adonis».

Both poems went through many editions during Shakespeare's life­time. But their success did not lead Shakespeare to give up play writing. After the public theaters were reopened in 1594, he began again to write plays. Indeed, Shakespeare was one of the few Elizabethan writ­ers who concentrated almost solely on the theater as a career.

The years of fame From 1594 to 1608, Shakespeare was fully involved in the Lon­don theater world. In addition to his duties as a stockholder and actor in the Lord Chamberlain's Men, he wrote an average of al­most two plays a year for his company. During much of this period, Shakespeare ranked as London's most popular playwright, based on the number of times his plays were performed and published. But his reputation was largely that of a popular playwright, not of a writer of unequaled genius. Few people gave him the praise that later generations heaped on him. An exception was the English clergyman and schoolmaster Francis Meres.

In 1598, Meres wrote «Palladis Tamia: Wit's Treasury», a book that has become an important source of information about Shakespeare's career. In this book, Meres said of Shakespeare: «As Plautus and Seneca are accounted the best for Comedy and Trag­edy among the Latins: so Shakespeare among the English is the most excellent in both kinds for the stage». Although Mercs' praise did not represent everyone's opinion, it indicates that Shakespeare had become an established writer by at least the late 1590's. And he had not yet written most of his great tragedies, such as «Ham­let», «Othello», «King Lear», and «Macbeth».

By the late 1590's, Shakespeare had not only become an estab­lished writer, but he had also become prosperous. In 1597, he pur­chased New Placc, one of the two largest houses in Stratford. Shakespeare obviously remained a Stratford man at heart in spite of his busy, successful life in London. Records of business deal­ings and of minor lawsuits reveal that he preferred to invest most of his money in Stratford rather than in London.

The Globe Theatre, In 1599, Shakespeare and six associates became owners of the Globe, a new outdoor theater in the London suburb of Soulhwark. The Globe was one of the largest theaters in the London area. It may have held as many as 3,000 spectators.

Also in 1599, a printer named William Jaggard published «The Passionate Pilgrim», a book of 20 poems supposedly written by Shakespeare. However, the book contained only two of Shakespeare's sonnets and three poems from his comedy «Love's Labour's Lost». The printer used Shakespeare's name on the title page to promote the book's sale, which illustrates the playwright's popularity at that time.

The King's Men. In 1603, Queen Elizabeth I died and was succeedcd by her cousin James VI of Scotland. As king of En­gland, he became James I. James enjoyed and actively supported the theater. He issued a royal license to Shakespeare and his fellow players, which allowed the company to call itself the King's Men. In return for the license, the actors entertained the king at court on a more or less regular basis.

James's support came at a convenient time. An outbreak of plague in 1603 had closed the theaters for long periods, making theatrical life uncertain. In fact, James's entry into London as king had to be postponed until 1604 because of the plague.

When James finally made his royal entry into London, the King's Men accompanied him. The members of the company were offi­cially known as grooms of the chamber. In spite of this title and the name King's Men, the actors were not actually friends of live king. Their relationship to the royal court was simply that of professional entertainers.

The King's Men achieved unequalcd success and became London's leading theatrical group. In 1608, the company leased the Blackfiriars Theatre for 21 years. The theater stood in a heavily populated London district callcd Blackfriars. The Blackfriars The­atre had artificial lighting, was probably heated, and served as the company's winter playhouse. The King's Men performed at the Globe during the summer.

From 1599 to 1608 was a period of extraordinary literary activ­ity for Shakespeare. During these years, he wrote several comedies and almost all the tragedies that have made him famous. Shakespeare's masterpieces during this period include the comcdies «Much Ado About Nothing and Twelfth Night»; the history «Henry V»; and the tragedies «Antony and Cleopatra», «Hamlet», «Julius Caesar», «King Lear», «Macbeth», and «Othello».

The sonnets. In 1609, a London publisher named Thomas Thorpe published a book called «Shakespeare's Sonnets». The vol­ume contained more than 150 sonnets that Shakespeare had writ­ten over the years. Scholars have long been especially curious about the dedication Thorpe wrote to the book. The dedication reads, in modernized spelling: «To the only begetter of these ensuing son­nets Mr. W. Н». Generations of researchers have failed to identify Mr. W. H. Scholars have also analyzed the sonnets to determine to what extent they are autobiographical. But their analyses have proved contradictory and generally unsatisfactory. Many critics suggest that readers simply enjoy the sonnets as some of the finest verse in English literature instead of examining the poems as auto­biographical statements.

His last years

During his last eight years of life, Shakespeare wrote only four plays — «Cymbeline», «Henry VIII», «The Tempest», and «The Winter's Tale». In the past, some scholars argued that «The Tem­pest», written about 1610, was Shakespeare's last play. They stated that he then retired almost completely to Stratford. However, «Henry УШ» can be dated about 1613. In addition, Shakespeare purchased a house in the Blackfriars district of London in 1613. The evidence thus suggests that Shakespeare gradually reduced his activity in Lon­don rather than ending it abruptly.

Shakespeare must have divided his time between his private life in Stratford and his public life in London. He had lodgings in London at least until 1604 and probably until 1611. Yet such fam-

ily events as his daughter Susanna's marriage in 1607 and his mother's death in 1608 would certainly have called him back to Stratford. By 1612, he may have been spending much of his time in the comforts of New Place in Stratford.

On Feb. 10, 1616, Shakespeare's younger daughter, Judith, married Thomas Quincy, the son of his Stratford neighbour Rich­ard Quincy. Six weeks later, Shakespeare revised his will. Within a month, he died. He was buried inside the Stratford parish church. His monument records the day of death as April 23, the generally accepted date of his birth.

Shakespeare's son, Hamnet, died in 1596 at the age of 11. The playwright's daughter Susanna had one child, Elizabeth, who bore no children. Judith gave birth to three boys, but they died before she did. Shakespeare's last direct descendant, his granddaughter, Elizabeth, died in 1670.

The anti-Stratfordians

Through the years, the facts of Shakespeare's life have been confused with many tales based on hearsay and legend. During the 1800's in particular, admiration for Shakespeare grew so intense that it resulted in a totally uncritical attitude toward the man and his works. This attitude made Shakespeare almost into a god.

Some people so admired Shakespeare's plays that they refused to believe an actor from Stratford-upon-Avon could have written them. Shakespeare's commonplace country background did not fit their image of the genius who wrote the plays. These people, called anti-Stratfordians, proposed several other Elizabethan writers as the author of Shakespeare's works. The writers they suggest are sometimes called claimants. Almost all the claimants were mem­bers of the nobility or upper class. The anti-Stratfordians believed that only an educated, sophisticated man of high social standing could have written the plays.

Sir Francis Bacon was the first and, for many years, the most popular candidate proposed as the real author of Shakespeare's plays. Bacon's followers remain active today. But other anti-Strat­fordians have had their own favorites. Edward de Vcre, the 17^th Earl of Oxford, is now more popular than Bacon. Other men to whom authorship has been credited include Roger Manners, the 5"¹

Earl of Rutland; William Stanley, the 6^th Earl of Derby; and Sir Walter Raleigh. Some anti-Stratfordians have also claimed that the writer Christopher Marlowe was the actual author. In spite of the claims made for these men, no important Shakespearean scholar doubts that Shakespeare wrote the plays and poems.

Shakespeare's works reflect the cultural, social, and political conditions of the Elizabethan Age. Knowledge of these conditions can provide greater understanding of Shakespeare's plays and po­ems. For example, most Elizabethans believed in ghosts, witches, and magicians. No biographical evidence exists that Shakespeare held such beliefs, but he used them effectively in his works Ghosts play aii important part in «Hamlet», «Julius Caesar», «Macbeth», and «Richard III». Witches are major characters in «Macbeth». Prospero, the hero of «The Tempest», is a magician.

Shakespeare's London had nearly 200,000 persons in 1600. By modern standards, it was a crowded, unsanitary city. The un­sanitary conditions led to frequent epidemics of plague, in which thousands of people died. Most houses were overcrowded, and the inner rooms dark and musty.

The crowdcd streets helped give London an air of bustling ac­tivity. But other factors also made London an exciting city. It was the commercial and banking center of England and one of the world's chief trading centers. London was also the capital of En­gland. The queen and her dazzling court thus lived in the city for much of each year, adding to the color and excitement. The city's importance attracted people from throughout England and from other countries. Artists, courtiers, teachers, musicians, students, and writers all flocked to London to seek advancement.

Although large for its day, London was still small enough so that a person could be close to its cultural and political life. The wide range of knowledge that Shakespeare showed in his plays has amazed many of his admirers. Yet much of this knowledge was the kind that could be absorbed by being in the company of informed persons. The range of Shakespeare's learning and the variety of his characters probably rcflcct his deep involvement in London life.

Elizabethan socicty. In the late 15(X)'s, when Shakespeare began to write his plays, the English people tended to be optimistic. In 1588, the English navy won a great victory over the Armada the huge Span- ish fleet that tried to conquer England The victory made England more secure and aroused strong feelings of patriotism. Following the tri­umph over the Armada, the English could agree with John of Gaunt in Shakespeare's «Richard П» that they were a «happy breed».

But the optimism of the late 1500's faded rapidly. By the time Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, the English were struggling with many social and economic problems. These problems were com­plicated by minor wars with other countries — wars that often seemed without purpose. To many English people, the world ap­peared to be deteriorating and becoming, in Hamlets words, «an unweeded garden / That grows to seed».

Shakespeare's plays reflect the shift from optimism to pessi­mism in Elizabethan society. All his early plays, even the histories and the tragedy «Romeo and Juliet», have an exuberance that sets them apart from the later works. After 1600, Shakespeare's dramas show the confused gloomy, and often bitter social attitudes of the time. During this period, he wrote his greatest tragedies. Even the comedies «Measure for Measure» and «Alls Well That Ends Well» have a bitter quality not found in his earlier comedies. A character in the tragedy «King Lear» cries out in despair, «As flies to wanton boys are we to the gods. / They kill us for their sport». These lines reflect the uncertainties of the time, as well as the uncertainties of a particular dramatic situation.

Elizabethans were keenly aware of death and the brevity of life. They lived in constant fear of plague. When an epidemic struck, they saw victims carted off to common graves. Yet death and vio­lence also fascinated many Elizabethans. Londoners flocked to public beheadings of traitors, whose heads were exhibited on poles. They also watched as criminals were hanged, and they saw the corpses dangle from the gallows for days. Crowds also flocked to such bloodthirsty sports as bear-baiting and bullbaiting, in which dogs attacked a bear or bull tied to ъ. p^st.

Elizabethan literature mirrored the violence and death so char­acteristic of English life. Shakespeare's tragedies, like other Eliza­bethan tragedies, involve the murder or suicide of many of the lead­ing characters.

In spile of their tolerance of cruelty, Elizabethans were extremely sensitive to beauty and grace. They loved many forms of literature, including poetic drama, narrative and lyric poetry, prose fiction, and essays. People of all classes enjoyed music, and English com­posers rivaled the finest composers in all Europe.

Instrumental music, singing, and dancing are important in Elizabe­than drama. Some of Shakespeare's romantic comedies might almost be called «musical comedies». «Twelfth Night», for example, includes instrumental serenades and rousing drinking songs as well as other songs ranging from sad to comic. Dances form part of the action in «The Tempest», «The Winter's Tale», and «Romeo and Juliet».

The English ruler. Shakespeare's 10 history plays deal with English kings and nobility. Nine of the plays concern events from 1398 to the 1540's. A knowledge of these events and of the Eliza­bethans' attitude toward their own ruler can help a playgoer or reader understand Shakespeare's histories.

During the 100 years before Elizabeth I became queen, violent political and religious conflicts had weakened the throne. From 1455 to 1485, a series of particularly bitter civil wars tore England apart. The wars centered on the efforts of two rival noble families — the House of Lancaster and the House of York — to control the throne. The wars are called the Wars of the Roses because Lancaster's emblem was said to be a red rose and York's a white rose. Four of Shakespeare's historical plays deal with the Wars of the Roses. These plays, in historical order, are «Henry VI», Parts I, II, and III; and «Richard III».

During the early 1500's, England was divided by a religious struggle. In 1534, Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church. His action led to the formation of the Church of England. In 1553, Queen Mary I re-established Catholicism as the state reli­gion. But after Elizabeth I became queen in 1558, she re-estab­lished the Church of England.

As a result of the preceding 100 years of conflict, Elizabethans came to believe that a strong but just ruler was absolutely necessary to keep social order. In seeing Shakespeare's history plays, they would have understood his treatment of royal responsibilities as well as royal privileges. Elizabethans would have been aware of the dangers of a weak king — dangers that Shakespeare described in «Richard II». They would also have been alert to the dangers of a cruel and unjust ruler, which Shakespeare portrayed in «Richard III».

Shakespeare wrote his plays to suit the abilities of particular actors and the tastes of specific audiences. The physical structure of the theaters in which his works were presented also influenced his play writing. He used many dramatic devices that were popular in the Elizabethan theatre but are no longer widely used. Modern readers and theatergoers can enjoy Shakespeare's plays more fully if they know about the various theatrical influences that helped shape them.

The first period (1590—1594)

The plays of Shakespeare's first period have much in common, though they consist of comedies, histories, and a tragedy. The plots of these plays tend to follow their sources more mechanically than do the plots of Shakespeare's later works. The plots also tend to consist of a series of loosely related episodes, rather than a closely integrated dramatic structure. In addition, the plays generally em­phasize events more than the portrayal of character.

In his first period, Shakespeare's use of language indicates that he was still struggling to develop his own flexible poetic style. For example, Shakespeare's descriptive poetry in this period is apt to be flowery, rather than directly related to the development of the characters or the story.

The Comedy of Errors, a comedy partly based on «Amphitruo» and «Menaechmi», two comedics by the ancient Roman playwright Plautus. Probably first performed during the period from 1590 to 1594. First published in 1623.

The action in «The Comedy of Errors» takes place in the an­cient Greek city of Ephesus. The plot deals with identical twin broth­ers, both named Antipholus. Each brother has a servant named Dromio, who also happen to be twin brothers. The twins of each set were separated as children, and neither twin knows where his brother is living. One twin and his servant live in Ephesus. Their brothers live in Syracuse. After Antipholus and Dromio of Syra­cuse arrive in Ephesus, a series of mistaken identities and comical mix-ups develops before the twin brothers are re-united.

«The Comedy of Errors» has little charactcr portrayal or fine poetry. However, the plot is filled with intrigue and broad humor, which make the play highly effective theatre.

«Henry VI», Parts I, II, and III, three related histories partly based on «The Union of the Two Noble and Illustrious Families of Lancaster and York» by the English historian Edward Hall and on the «Chronicles» by the English historian Raphael Holinshed. Each part probably first performed during the period from 1590 to 1592. Part I published in 1623, Part II in 1594, and Part Ш in 1595.

The three parts of «Henry VI» present a panoramic view of En­glish history in the 1400's. The action begins with the death of King Henry V in 1422. It ends with the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. The plays vividly mirror the Wars of the Roses — the series of bloody conflicts between the houses of York and Lancaster for control of the English throne. Part I deals largely with wars be­tween England and France. But all three plays dramatize the plots and countciplots that marked the struggle between the two royal houses.

The «Henry VI» plays are confusing to read because of their large and shifting casts of characters. The plays have much greater impact when performed than when read. On the stage, the constant action, exaggerated language, and flashes of brilliant characteriza­tion result in lively historical drama.

Richard III, a history partly based on «The Union of the Two Noble and Illustrious Families of Lancaster and York» by the En­glish historian Edward Hall and on the «Chronicles» by the En­glish historian Raphael Holinshed. Probably first performed in 1593. First published in 1597.

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The play deals with the end of the Wars of the Roses. It opens with the hunchbacked Richard, Duke of Gloucester, confiding his villainous plans to the audience. He addresses the audience in a famous soliloquy that begins, «Now is the winter of our discontent/ Made glorious summer by this sun of York». Richard refers to the success of his brother Edward, Duke of York. Edward has over­thrown Henry VI of the House of Lancaster and taken the English throne. Now weak and ill, he rules England as Edward IV. Richard wants to gain the crown for himself. He has his other brother, the Duke of Clarence, murdered. After King Edward dies, Richard sends the Prince of Wales, the dead king's older son, and the prince's brother to the Tower of London. After seizing the throne as Rich­ard III, he has the two boys murdered.

Before long, Richard's allies turn against him and join forces with the Earl of Richmond, a member of the House of Lancaster. Richmond's forces defeat Richard's army at the Battle of Bos worth Field. Richard utters the famous cry «А horse! a horse! my king­dom for a horse!» as his mount is slain during the battle. Richmond finally kills Richard and takes the throne as King Henry VII.

The character of Richard is a superb theatrical portrait of total evil. But Richard blends his wickedness with such wit that his plot­ting becomes a delight to watch. On a deeper level, «Richard III» reminds audiences that when evil flourishes, society in general is to blame. People can be freed from the evil around them only when they themselves live up to the demands they make of their leaders.

«The Taming of the Shrew», a comedy possibly based on «The Taming of a Shrew», a comedy by an unknown English playwright, and on «Supposes», a comedy by the English author George Gascoigne. Probably first per formed in 1593. First published in 1623.

This play dramatizes how Petruchio, a young Italian gentleman, woos the beautiful but shrewish (bad tempered) Katherine, whose biting tongue has discouraged other suitors. Petruchio marries her. But before and after the wedding, he systematically humiliates Katherine to cure her of her temper. After many comical clashes between the two, Petruchio's strategy succeeds and Katherine be­comes an obedient wife. At this point, Petruchio reveals himself to be a true gentleman and genuinely fond of Katherine.

A broad and vigorous comedy, «The Taming of the Shrew» pro­vides two outstanding roles in the characters of the battling lovers. The parts of Petruchio and Katherine have been a showcase for generations of gifted actors and actresses.

Titus Andronicus, a tragedy possibly based in part on «The History of Titus Andronicus», a story by an unknown English au­thor. Probably first performed about 1594. First published in 1594.

This play is a type of melodrama that was popular in Elizabe­than theater. The action takes place in and around ancient Rome. It involves a scries of brutal acts of revenge by the Roman general Titus Andronicus against the men who raped his daughter, Lavinia. Shakespeare only occasionally lightened the play's bloody sensa­tionalism with effective poetry and characterization. The evil plots

of Aaron the Moor provide most of the interest in an otherwise continuous parade of horror and violence.

«The Two Gentlemen of Verona», a comedy partly based on «Diana», a story by the Spanish author Jorge de Montemayor, and on «The Book of the Governor», an educational work by the En­glish author Sir Thomas Elyot. Probably first performed in 1594. First published in 1623.

The play is a witty comedy of love and friendship. It takes place in Italy. Two friends from Verona, Valentine and Proteus, meet in Milan. They soon become rivals for the love of Silvia, the daughter of the Duke of Milan. Valentine discovers Proteus as his friend is about to force his attentions on Silvia. Proteus repents his action, and Valentine forgives him. Valentine then tells his friend that he can have Silvia. But Valentine's generosity becomes unnecessary. Proteus learns that Julia, his former mistress, has followed him to Milan disguised as a page. Proteus realizes that he really loves Julia. He marries her at the end of the play, and Valentine marries Silvia.

In «The Two Gentlemen of Verona», Shakespeare introduced several features and devices that he later used so effectively in the great romantic comedies of his second period. For example, he in­cluded beautiful songs, such as «Who Is Silvia?»; scenes in a peace­ful, idealized forest; and a girl, disguised as a page, braving the dangers of the world.

«King John», a history probably based in part on «The Trouble­some Reign of John, King of England», a play by an unknown English author. Probably first performed about 1594. First published in 1623.

The story concerns the efforts of England's King John to de­fend his throne against the claims of Arthur, the young Duke of Brittany. The powerful king of France supports Arthur. John has the allegiance of the brave and able Philip Faulconbridge and of the English nobility. But in time, John's evil and weak policies cost him the loyalty of his followers. Near the end of the play, both Arthur and John die violently. John's son then takes the throne as Henry III.

The most interesting character in «King John» is Faulconbridge. His sarcastic and witty comments on the personalities and motives of the other characters provide the play's best dialogue.

The second period (1595—1600)

During his second period, Shakespeare brought historical drama and Elizabethan romantic comedy to near perfection. Particularly in his histories and comedies of this period, Shakespeare demon­strated his genius for weaving various dramatic actions into a uni­fied plot, rather than writing a series of loosely connected episodes. Throughout the second period, Shakespeare moved steadily toward the matchless gift for characterization that marks the great trag­edies he produced in the early 1600's.

«Л Midsummer Night's Dream», a comedy probably based on several sources, none of which was a chief source. Probably first performed in 1595. First published in 1600.

The play begins in Athens, Greece, with preparations for a wed­ding between Theseus, Duke of Athens, and Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons. But most of the action takes place in an enchanted forest outside Athens. In the forest, two young men, Lysander and Demetrius, and two young women. Hermia and Helena, wander about together after they become lost. Lysander and Demetrius both love Hermia and ignore Helena, who loves Demetrius. Oberon, king of the fairies, orders the mischievous elf Puck to anoint Demetrius' eyes with magic drops that will make him love Helena. However, Puck mistakenly anoints Lysander's eyes, creating much comic confusion. Puck finally straightens out the mix up.

In a subplot, Oberon quarrels with Titania, his queen. He then anoints Titania's eyes with the magic drops while she sleeps so that when she awakens, she will love the first living thing she sees. At this time, Nick Bottom, a weaver, and his comical friends arc re­hearsing a foolish play they plan to present at the duke's wedding. When Titania awakens, she sees Bottom and immediately falls in love with him. To increase Titania's humiliation, Puck gives Bot­tom the head of a donkey. Aided by her fairy attendants, Titania woos Bottom until Oberon takes pity on her and has Puck remove the spell. The play ends with the duke's wedding. The two young couples — Lysander and Hermia and Demetrius and Helena — also marry during this ceremony. Bottom and his friends perform their hilariously silly play at the wedding celebration.

For «А Midsummer Night's Dream», Shakespeare wrote some of his most richly descriptive poetry. Oberon tells Puck, «1 know a bank where the wild thyme blows / Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows». The passage transports the audience in imagination to a magic wood where flowers bloom and fairies play. Shakespeare balanced this romantic fantasy with the rough humor of Bottom and his friends. The self-centered Bottom ranks as one of Shakespeare's finest comic figures. The comedy also has a serious side. Gaily but firmly, it makes fun of romantic love. As Puck com­ments, «Lord, what fools these mortals be!»

«Richard II», a history partly based on the «Chronicles» by the English historian Raphael Holinshed. Probably first performed in 1595. First published in 1597.

As the play begins, King Richard exiles his cousin Bolingbroke from England. Later, Richard seizes Bolingbroke's property. While Richard fights rebels in Ireland, Bolingbroke returns to England and demands his property. After Richard learns of Bolingbroke's return, he hurries back to England to find his cousin leading a force of nobles who are discontented with Richard's rule. Instead of pre­paring the royal army to fight Bolingbroke, Richard wastes his time in outbursts of self-pity. He finally gives up his crown to Bolingbroke without a fight. Bolingbroke then orders that Richard be put in prison.

After Bolingbroke is crowned Henry IV, the imprisoned Rich­ard is killed by a knight who mistakenly believed that the new king wanted Richard murdered. At the end of the play, Henry vows to make a journey to the Holy Land to pay for Richard's death.

In «Richard II», Shakespeare seriously explored for the first time the idea that a person's character determines his fate. The play is a study of a weak, self-centered man. Richard becomes so out of touch with reality that his only defense of his kingdom is the hope that his «master, God omnipotent, / Is mustering in his clouds on our behalf / Armies of pestilence». When he faces the certain loss of his crown, Richard can only compare himself to Christ, who «in twelve, / Found truth in all but one; I, in twelve thousand none».

«Love's Labour's Lost», a comedy probably based on several sources, none of which was a chief source. Probably first performed in 1596. First published in 1598.

King Ferdinand of Navarre and his friends Bcrowne, Longaville, and Dumain vow to live without the company of women for three

years. But the princess of France unexpectedly arrives at the king's court with three female companions. The comedy centers on the efforts of the men to woo the women while pretending to keep their vow. At the play's end, the men propose to their visitors, who prom­ise to give their answer in a year and a day.

This witty comedy has more references to events of the day than do any of Shakespeare's other plays. Many of these references have lost their meaning for modern audiences, which makes numerous passages difficult to understand. In addition, much of the language is elaborate and artificial. But Shakespeare included two simple and lovely songs — «When Daisies Pied and Violets Blue» and «When Icicles Hang by the Wall». «Love's Labour's» Lost also has hand­some scenes of spectacle and several entertaining comic characters.

«Romeo and Juliet», a tragedy based on «Romeus and Juliet», a poem by the English author Arthur Brooke. Probably first per­formed in 1596. First published in 1597.

«Romeo and Juliet» deals with two teen-aged lovers in Verona, Italy, who are caught in a bitter feud between their families, the Montagues and the Capulets. Romeo a Montague, and his friends crash a masked ball given by the Capulets. At the ball, Romeo meets Juliet, a Capulet, and they fall in love. The next day, the couple are secretly married by Friar Laurence. Returning from the wedding, Romeo meets Juliet's cousin Tybalt, who tries to pick a fight with him. But Romeo refuses to fight his new relative. To defend the Montague honor, Romeo's friend Mercutio accepts Tybalt's chal­lenge. As Romeo attempts to part the young men, Tybalt stabs Mercutio to death. In revenge, Romeo then fights and kills Tybalt. As a result of the death of Tybalt, Romeo is exiled from Verona.

Juliet's father tries to force her to marry her cousin Paris, un­aware that she is already married. To allow Juliet to escape from her father's demand, Friar Laurence gives Juliet a drug that puts her into a deathlike sleep for 42 hours. The friar sends a messenger to the exiled Romeo to tell him of the drug, but the messenger is delayed. Romeo hears that Juliet is dead and hurries to the tomb where she has been placed. There, he takes poison and dies by Juliet's side. Juliet awakens to find her husband dead and stabs herself. The discovery of the dead lovers convinces the two fami­lies that they must end their feud.

The popularity of «Romeo and Juliet» owes much to Shakespeare's sympathy for the young people in the play. Shakespeare seemed to blame the tragic ending on the blind self-interest of the adults. The success of the play also comes from effective character­izations and intensely lyrical poetry. Although frequently artificial, Shakespeare's language shows signs of the simpler, more direct style he would use in his later tragedies. For example, as Romeo watches Juliet on the balcony outside her bedroom he sighs:

See how she leans her check upon her hand! Oh, that I were a glove upon that hand, That I might touch that check!

«The Merchant of Venice», a comedy partly based on a story in «II Pecoronc», a collection of tales by the Italian author Giovanni Florentino. Probably lirst performed in 1597. First published in 1600.

Antonio, a merchant in Venicc, Italy, borrows money from the Jewish moneylender Shylock and then lends the money to his friend Bassanio. Antonio has promised Shylock a pound of his flesh if he does not repay the loan in three months. The three months pass, and Shylock demands his money. But Antonio cannot pay. Shylock then demands the pound of flesh.

Meanwhile, Bassanio has courted and married the beautiful and gifted heiress Portia. She has a plan to save Antonio from Shylock. Shylock goes to court to demand the flesh. Portia, disguised as a learned lawyer, asks him to reconsider in a famous speech that be­gins, «The quality of mercy is not strained». Shylock remains firm. Portia then warns him that he may take Antonio's flesh but not his blood. If Shylock spills any blood in taking the flesh, he will lose his property. Shylock drops his demand, and Antonio is saved.

In «The Merchant of Venice», Shakespeare combined comic intrigue with a vivid portrait of hatred and greed. Although the play ends happily for everyone except the revengeful Shylock, it is not a light-hearted comedy. In Shakespeare's time, both the church and the state considered moneylending at high interest a crime. Shylock was thus a natural object of scorn. On the surface, Shakespeare's view of him reflected the attitudes of the day. But the dramatist treated the moneylender as a very human and even sympathetic person. For example, Shakespeare provided Shylock

with an eloquent statement of how it feels to be part of a harshly treated minority: «If you prick us, do wc not bleed? If you tickle us, do wc not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?»

«Henry IV», Parts I and II, two related histories partly based on the «Chronicles» by the English historian Raphael Holinshed and on «The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth», a play by an unknown English author. Part I probably first performed in 1597. First published in 1598. Part II probably first performed in 1598. First published in 1600.

Tlie two parts of «Henry IV» dramatize events that follow the murder of England's King Richard II. In Part I the guilt-ridden Henry IV wants to go to the Holy Land in repentance for Richard's death. But constant political unrest in England prevents him. At the same tune, Prince Hal, his son, leads au apparently irresponsible life with his brawling friends, led by the fat, jolly knight Sir John Falstaff. FalstalT's clowning provides most of the play's humor. The king quar­rels with Henry Percy, known as Hotspur, who is the fiery young son of the powerful Earl of Northumberland. As a result of the quarrel, the Percy family revolts. At the Battle of Shrewsbury, Hal reveals himself to be a brave and princely warrior and kills Hotspur.

Part II of «Henry IV» also has many scenes of Falstaff's clown­ing. These scenes are set against the background of the continuing Percy rebellion and the approaching death of the ill Henry IV. Hal's brother, Prince John, finally defeats the rebels. The king dies, and Hal takes the throne as Henry V. He immediately reveals his royal qualities and rejects Falstaff and his friends, telling them to leave him alone until they have abandoned their wild living.

Of the two plays, Part I is more memorable. It introduces Falstaff. best characterized by his comment in Part II that «I am not only witty in myself, but the cause that wit is in other men». Falstaff is a bragging, lying, and thievish drunkard. But his faults are balanced by his clever sense of humor, his contagious love of life, and his refusal to take either himself or the world seriously. Falstaff is one of the great comic roles in the theater.

«As You Like It», a comedy partly based on «Rosalynde», a novel by the English author Thomas Lodge. Probably first per­formed ii 1599 First published in 1623.

Rosalind ami her cousin Celia leave the court of Celia's father, Duke Frederick, after he unjustly banishes Rosalind. Accompa­nied by Touchstone, the court jester, the two girls take refuge in the Forest of Arden. Also in the forest are Orlando, who loves Rosalind; Jaques, a melancholy philosopher; Audrey, a country girl; Silvius, a shepherd; and Phebe, a shepherdess. Duke Frederick's brother, who is Rosalind's father and the rightful ruler of Frederick's land, also lives in the forest. He leads a band of merry outlaws.

Rosalind disguised as a young shepherd named Ganymede, meets Orlando in the forest. Not recognizing the disguised girl, Orlando agrees to pretend that Ganymede is Rosalind so he can practice his declarations of love. Rosalind finally reveals her iden­tity and marries Orlando. Oliver, Orlando's formerly wickcd brother, marries Celia, Touchstone marries Audrey, and Silvius marries Phebe. The news that Rosalind's father has been restored to his dukedom completes the comedy's happy ending.

Like many other Elizabethan romantic comedies, «As You Like It» concerns young lovers who pursue their happy destiny in a world seemingly far removed from reality. Although evil threatens, it never harms. Shakespeare enriched the play with beautiful poetry as well as several charming songs.

Shakespeare consistently balanced the merry laughter of «As You Like It» with notes of seriousness and even sadness. Touchstone's wit and Jaques's remarks question the nature of love and the values of society. The play discusses the advantages and disadvantages of city and country life. Jaques adds a strong note of melancholy to the play with his famous description of the seven ages of man. At the end of the description, he claims that man's final fate is «second childishness and mere oblivion, / Sans [with­out] teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything».

«Henry V», a history partly based on the «Chronicles» by the English historian Raphael Holinshed and on «The Famous Victo­ries of Henry the Fifth», a play by an unknown English author. Probably first performed in 1599. First published in 1600.

The play continues the action of «Henry IV», Part II, and pre-» sents an idealized portrait of England's King Henry V. The king decides to press a claim he believes he has to the French throne. He heads an army that lands in France. Inspired by Henry's leader- ship, the outnumbered English troops defeat the French at the (own of Harflcur. The two armies then meet in battle near the village of Agincourt. Against overwhelming odds, the English win a great victory. The triumphant Henry is received at the French court. There he is promised the throne and the hand of {Catherine, the French princess with whom he has fallen in love.

The play consists of loosely related episodes unified by the char­acter of the brave but modest king. Shakespeare filled «Henry V» with patriotic passages, especially the king's famous address to his troops at Harfleur. It begins, «Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more». The speech concludes, «The game's afoot! / Follow your spirit; and upon this charge / Cry God for Harry! En­gland and Saint George!»

Henry claims to hate war in general. Yet he finds himself car­ried away by the glamour and glory of the French campaign. Al­though the play occasionally seems to glorify war, Shakespeare set the heroics against a background of political treachery and empty honor. Comic scenes mock the vanity of the royal court. These scenes remind audiences that monarchs and their councils plan wars, but ordinary people must fight and die in them.

«Julius Caesar», a tragedy partly based on «Lives» by the an­cient Greek biographer Plutarch, as translated by the English writer Sir Thomas North. Probably first performed in 1599. First pub­lished in 1623.

The play takes place in ancient Rome and concerns events be­fore and alter the assassination of the Roman ruler Julius Caesar. In spile of its title, the play's central character is Brutus, a Roman general and Caesar's best friend. Brutus reluctantly joins a plot to murder Caesar because he believes Rome's safely requires his death. The plotters attack Caesar in the Roman Senate. He resists until he sees Brutus. Caesar's last words are «Et tu, Brute? [You too, Brutus?] Then fall, Caesar!»

Brutus defends the assassination to a crowd of Romans. But he unwisely allows the clever and eloquent Mark Antony to deliver a funeral speech over Caesar's body. Antony tells the people, «I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him». He then describes the plotters with heavy sarcasm as «honorable men». At the same time, Antony points out Caesar's virtues and thus gradually turns the crowd into a mob ready to bum and kill in order to avenge Caesar's death. The plotters arc forccd to flee Rome.

Mark Antony leads an army that defeats the forces of the plot­ters at the Battle of Philippi. At the end of the battle, Brutus com­mits suicide. Over his corpse, Antony states, «This was the noblest Roman of them all». Antony says that the other plotters killed Cae­sar out of envy but only Brutus acted with «honest thought / And common good to all».

«Julius Caesar» has become a popular play because of its mag­nificent language and shaip character portraits. For example Cae­sar describes the plotter Cassius as having a «lean and hungry look». But the real interest in «Julius Caesar» centers on the character of Brutus. A thoughtful, withdrawn man, he is torn between his affec­tion for Caesar and his strong sense of duty to the state.

«Much Ado About Nothing», a comedy partly based on «Or­lando Furioso», an epic poem by the Italian author Ludovico Ariosto, and on a story in «Novellc», a collection of tales by the Italian author Mattco Bandello. Probably first performed in 1599. First published in 1600.

This romantic comedy concerns the attempts by the villainous Don John to slander the virtue of Hero, the daughter of the gover­nor of Messina, Italy. After a great deal of intrigue, the play ends happily. However, the real interest in «Much Ado About Nothing» centers on the relationship between Beatrice and Benedick, two witty young people who trade insults throughout most of the play. Their arguments and their final discovery that they love each other provide much of the fun of the play. Adding to the gaiety of the play is the broad humor of the talkative village constiblc, Dogberry, and his assistant, Verges.

«Twelfth Night», a comedy partly based on a story in «Fare­well to Military Profession», a collection of tales by the English author Barnabe Riche. Probably first performed in 1600. First pub­lished in 1623.

Viola and Sebastian, who are twins, become separated during a shipwreck. Viola finds herself stranded in the country of Illyria. She disguises herself as Cesano, a page, and enters the service of Duke Orsino. The duke sends the page to woo the countess Olivia for him. But the countess falls in love with Cesario. Meanwhile,

the page only complicates matters further by falling in love with the duke.

The romantic action alternates with scenes of realistic comedy involving the fat knighl Sir Toby Belch and his friends. One friend, Sir Andrew Aguecheek, fights Ccsario in a comic duel. Maria, the countess Olivia's lady-in-waiting, tricks the countess' steward, Malvolio, into thinking that Olivia loves him. The plot becomes increasingly tangled until Sebastian, Viola's twin brother, appears. Viola (hen reveals her identity, and the confusion is resolved. Orsino marries Viola, and Sebastian marries Olivia. Only Malvolio is left unhappy.

In «Twelfth Night», Shakespeare created a perfect blend of sen­timent and humor. In addition, he provided Feste, Olivia's clown, with witty comments on the foolish ways of people. Feste's songs contribute both gaiety and sadness to the mood of the play. In one famous song, he reminds the audiencc that they should enjoy the present because nobody can know what the future will bring: What is love? Tis not hereafter; Present mirth hath present laughter; What's to come is still unsure: In delay there lies no plenty; Then come kiss me, sweet and twenty! You til's a stuff will not endure.

Only Malvolio, who thinks he is more moral than other people, spoils the gentle mood of the play. Sir Toby Belch angrily asks him, «Dost thou think, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?» The comedy also contains the famous pas­sage «Some arc born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon «em».

The premiere of «Twelfth Night» probably took place on the Christian festival known as the Epiphany or Twelfth Night. The festival occurs 12 days after Christmas.

«The Merry Wives of Windsor», a comedy possibly based on an unknown source or sources. Probably first performed in 1600. First published in 1602.

This play represents Shakespeare's only attempt to write a real­istic comedy. According to a popular though unproven story. Queen Elizabeth requested the play. She so enjoyed the comic character

Sir John Falstaff in the «Henry IV» plays that she asked Shakespeare to write a comedy portraying Falstaff in love. The comedy drama­tizes Falstaff's efforts to make love to Mistress Ford and Mistress Page, two honest middle-class housewives in the town of Windsor. Instead of winning their love, Falstaff ends up the victim of a num­ber of comical tricks invented by the women.

Although «The Merry Wives of Windsor» lacks the romantic poetry of most Shakespearean comedies, the play is highly enter­taining. The Falstaff in this work has less imagination and wit than the Falstaff in the «Henry IV» plays. But the character remains theatrically effective, even though the audience laughs at him rather than with him, as in the earlier plays.

The third period (1601—1608)

Shakespeare wrote his great tragedies during the third period of his artistic development. Except possibly for «Pericles», every play of this period shows Shakespeare's awareness of the tragic side of life. Even the period's two comedies — «All's Well That Ends Well» and «Measure for Measure» — are more disturbing than amusing. For this reason, they are often called «problem» comedies or «bitter» comedies. «Pericles» represents Shakespeare's first romance — a drama that is generally serious in tone but with a happy ending.

During this period, Shakespeare's language shows remarkable variety and flexibility, moving easily back and forth between verse and prose. His language has become a totally dramatic tool that makes possible the skillful psychological portraits which mark this period.

«Hamlet», a tragedy partly based on «Hamlet», a lost play by an unknown English author, and on a story in «Histoires Tragiques», a collection of tales by the French author Francois de Belleforest. Probably first performed in 1601. First published in 1603.

Prince Hamlet of Denmark deeply mourns the recent death of his father. He also resents his mother's remarriage to his uncle, Claudius, who has become king. The ghost of Hamlet's father ap­pears to the prince and tells him he was murdered by Claudius. The ghost demands that Hamlet take revenge on the king.

Hamlet broods about whether he should believe the ghost. In his soliloquies, he criticizes himself for not acting against his uncle. He also considers the dangers and rewards of suicide. Hamlet de- cities to have a band of traveling actors perform «something like the murder of my father» before the king to see if Claudius will show any guilt. The king's violent reaction to the play betrays his guilt. But Hamlet rejects a chance to kill Claudius while he is on his knees in prayer.

Polonius, the king's adviser, decides to eavesdrop on Hamlet while the princc is visiting his mother in her sitting room. He hides behind a curtain, but Hamlet becomes aware that someone is there. Hamlet stabs Polonius through the curtain and kills him.

Claudius exiles Hamlet to England for killing Polonius. He also sends secret orders that the princc be executed after he arrives in England. But Hamlet intercepts the orders and returns to Denmark. He arrives in time to sec the burial of Ophelia, the daughter of Polonius. The girl, whom Hamlet had loved, had gone insane fol­lowing her father's death and drowned herself.

Laertes, Ophelia's brother, blames Hamlet for the deaths of his sister and father. He agrees to a plot suggested by Claudius to kill Hamlet with a poisoned sword in a fencing match. Laertes wounds Hamlet during die duel and, in turn, is wounded himself by the poisoned weapon. While watching the match, Hamlet's mother ac­cidentally drinks from a cup of poisoned wine Claudius had pre­pared for Hamlet. Although dying from his wound. Hamlet kills Claudius. At the conclusion of the play. Hamlet, his mother, Claudius, and Laertes all lie dead.

Shakespeare handled the complicated plot of «Hamlet» bril­liantly. In this play, he also created perhaps his greatest gallery of characters. The role of Hamlet in particular is considered one of the theater's greatest acting challenges. Shakespeare focused the play on the deep conflict within the thoughtful and idealistic Ham­let as he is torn between the demands of his emotions and the hesi­tant skepticism of his mind. Hamlet reveals this conflict in several famous and eloquent soliloquies. The best known is his soliloquy on suicide, which begins, «To be, or not to be».

«Troilus and Cressida», a tragedy based on several sources, none of which was a chief source. Probably first performed in 1602. First published in 1609.

The story takes place during the Trojan War, fought between ancient Greece and the city of Troy. It dramatizes the love of the

Trojan warrior Troilus for the unfaithful Crcssida. The couple pledge their love, but Crcssida is unexpectedly sent to the Greek camp in exchange for a Trojan prisoner. There she abandons her vow to Troilus and takes the Greek warrior Diomedes as her lover. The play ends with the death of Troilus' brother, the great Trojan hero Hector.

In spite of its heroic setting, «Troilus and Crcssida» is neither noble nor stirring. Except possibly for Hector, all the characters act less than heroically. In both outlook and style, the play has more in common with the problem comedies than with the great tragedies.

«All's Well That Ends Well», a comedy partly based on a story in «The Palace of Pleasure», a collection of tales by various Euro­pean authors, as translated by William Painter, an Englishman. Prob­ably first performed in 1603. First published in 1623.

This play takes place in France and Italy. Helena, the beautiful orphaned daughter of a physician, loves Bertram, a nobleman. In Paris, Helena cures the French king of an illness and wins Bertram as her husband in reward. But Bertram considers Helena beneath him socially and deserts her immediately after the wedding. He tells her in a letter that she can never call him husband unless she gets a ring from his finger and becomes pregnant by him. Helena fulfills both conditions. One night, unknown to Bertram, she takes the place of a girl for whom her husband has a foolish passion. Bertram finally recognizes his wife's good qualities and promises to love her dearly.

On the surface, «All's Well That Ends Well» resembles other Elizabethan comedies of romantic intrigue. But unlike Shake­speare's earlier comedies, it has little gaiety and romance. Bertram's conduct makes him an unattractive hero. Many critics also dislike Helena for throwing herself at him. The play's interest lies prima­rily in Shakespeare's efforts to express through comedy his troubled view of humanity's imperfections.

«Measure for Measure», a comedy partly based on «Promos and Cassandra», a play by the English author George Whetstone. Probably first performed in 1604. First published in 1623.

Vincentio, Duke of Vienna turns over the affairs of the city to Angelo, his stern deputy, and Escalus, a wise old nobleman. The duke hopes the two men will introduce needed moral reforms in

Vienna. In one of his first acls, Angelo sentences Claudio to death for making Juliet, his fiancee, pregnant. Claudio's sister, Isabella, pleads with Angelo for Claudio's life. Overcome by her beauty, Angelo agrees to save Claudio if she will allow him to make love to her. Isabella refuses, preferring to let her brother die rather than yield her honor. After much intrigue and plotting, Claudio is saved, Isabella keeps her virtue, and Angelo's wicked deeds are exposed.

Many critics have objected to the happy ending of «Measure for Measure». They consider it false to the spirit of the play. The first part of the play is serious, almost tragic. The latter part be­comes a typical romantic intrigue. This lack of artistic unity creates problems. The first part of the play, for example, seriously raises questions about the nature of justice. But these questions seem to be answered too lightly at the play's end.

In spite of its flaws, «Measure for Measure» has many excellent features. Shakespeare drew the characters of Angelo and Isabella with keen understanding. He also included much broad comedy that is highly effective. In addition, his dramatic poetry at times equals that of the best in his tragedies.

«Olhello», a tragedy partly based on a story in «Hccatommithi», a collection of tales by the Italian author Cinthio. Probably first performed in 1604. First published in 1622.

Othello, a noble black Moor (North African), has spent his life as a soldier and become a general in the army of Venice, Italy. He marries Desdemona, a beautiful Venetian girl much younger than himself. Almost immediately after the marriage, Othello is ordered to Cyprus, where Desdemona joins him. Othello's villainous aide, Iago hates the Moor. Iago decides to destroy Othello by persuading him that Desdemona has made love with Cassio, Othello's lieuten­ant.

Iago quickly convinces Othello that Desdemona has been un­faithful. He achieves his goal by taking advantage of Othello s in­security over his color, age, and lack of sophistication. Constantly tormented by Iago, Olhello murders Desdemona. After the Moor learns he has been tricked, he stabs himself and dies, describing himself «as one that loved not wisely, but too well».

This play is Shakespeare's most straightforward tragedy. The action moves rapidly, and the language is simple and direct, like

the main character. «Othello» and «Romeo and Juliet» differ from Shakespeare's other tragedies in that neither deals with public af­fairs and royalty. Instead, «Othello» is a tragedy of personal ten­sions, of love and hatred, and of jealousy and impatience.

«King Lear», a tragedy partly based on the «Chronicles» by the English historian Raphael Holinshed; «The True Chronicle History of King Leir», a play by an unknown English author; and «Arcadia», a romance in prose and verse by the English author Sir Philip Sidney. Probably first performed in 1605. First published in 1608.