Activity 1. Skim through the text to get an overview of its contents. Human rights are the rights that one has simply because one is human

Human rights are the rights that one has simply because one is human. This deceptively simple idea has profound social and political consequences. Human rights, because they rest on nothing more than being human, are universal, equal, and inalienable. They are held by all human beings, universally. One either is or is not human and thus has or does not have human rights. And one can no more losetheserights than one can stop being a human being — no matter how inhuman the treatment one may suffer. One is entitled to human rights and is empowered by them. Human rights, being held by every person against the state and society, provide a framework for political organization and a standard of political legitimacy. In a context in which they are systematically denied, claims of human rights may be positively revolutionary. Even in societies where human rights are generally well respected, they provide constant pressure on governments to meet their standards. Human rights, however, are but one path to implement a particular conception of social justice. In fact, the idea of human rights — the notion that all human beings, simply because they are human, have certain inalienable rights that they may exercise against society and their rulers — was foreign to all major pre-modern Western and non-Western societies. Nearly all pre-modern societies saw rulers as obliged to govern wisely and for the common good. This mandate, however, arose from divine commandment, natural law, tradition, or contingent political arrangements. It did not rest on the rights (entitlement) of all human beings to be ruled justly. In a well-ordered society, the people were to benefit from the political obligations of rulers. But the people had no natural or human rights that could be exercised against unjust rulers. Human rights entered the mainstream of political theory and practice in 17th-century Europe. John Locke's Second Treatise of Government, published in 1688 in the wake of Britain's Glorious Revolution, which overthrew King James II, presented the first fully developed theory of natural rights. Locke's theory begins with a pre-social state of nature in which equal individuals have natural rights to life, liberty, and estates. In the absence of government, however, these rights are of little value. They are almost impossible to protect by individual action, and disputes over rights are themselves a powerful cause of conflict. Therefore, people form societies, and societies establish governments, to enable themselves to enjoy their natural rights. Government, according to Locke, is based on a social contract between rulers and ruled. Citizens are obliged to obey only if the government protects their human rights, which are morally prior to and above the claims and interests of the government. Governmentis legitimate to the extent that it systematically protects and furthers the enjoyment of the human rights of its citizens. The idea of human rights initially was associated with the middle classes. Against the claims of high birth and traditional privilege, the rising bourgeoisie of early modern Europe advanced political claims based on natural human equality and inalienable natural rights. This bourgeois political revolution, however, had severe limits. For example, Locke, despite the apparent universalismof the language of natural rights, actually developed a theory for the protection of the rights of propertied European males. Women, along with "savages," servants, and wage labourers of either sex, were not recognized as rights-holders. But once the notion of equal and inalienable rights held by all was advanced, the burden of proof shifted to those who would deny such rights to others. Claims of privilege could be rationalized by, for example, arguments of racial superiority or assertions of superior acquired virtue. Privilege could be, and regularly was, protected through force. But having accepted the idea of human rights, dominant elites found it increasingly difficult to escape the logic of human rights. Many of the great political struggles of the past two centuries have revolved around expanding the recognized subjects of human rights beyond a small, propertied elite provokedintensecontroversy in most European countries in the 19th century. The claims of working men for fair wages, for the right to organize themselves, and for safe and humane working conditions led to often violent political conflict until World War I in most of Europe, and much longer than that in the United States. Ending the systematic denial of human rights inherent in colonialism was a major global political issue during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. And struggles to eliminate discrimination based on race and genderhave been prominent in many countries over the past 30 years. In all of these situations, dispossessed groups used the rights they did enjoy to press for legal recognition of the rights being denied them. For example, workers used their votes, along with what freedom of the press and freedom of association were allowed them, to press for eliminating legal discriminationbased on wealth or property. They also demanded new rights that would bring true liberty, equality, and security to working men (and later women). Racial, ethnic, and religious minorities, women, and peoples suffering under colonial rule have likewise used what rights were allowed them to press for full recognition and participation as equal members of society. In each case, the essence of their argument was that we, no less than you, are human beings. As such, we are entitled to the same basic rights as you and to equal concern and respect from the state. And in each case, acceptance of such arguments has led to radical social and political changes. In the past decade, the revolutionary force of the demand for human rights has become unusually clear. Across the globe, regimes that had cynically manipulated the language of human rights have been sent packing by citizens that insisted on taking human rights seriously. A significant cause of the collapse of the Soviet empire was the growing unwillingness of Communist bloc citizens to accept the systematic denial of internationally recognized human rights. In South and Central America, repressive military governments fell throughout the 1980s. In Asia and Africa, liberalization and democratization have been more irregular but nevertheless real, and in some countries (South Korea and South Africa, for example) quite striking.   The spread of human rights is neither natural nor inevitable. Regression is possible, even likely in some cases. The world's remaining repressive dictatorships may prove quite long lived. But the lesson of the past decade would seem to be that wherever people are given the chance to choose, they choose internationally recognized human rights. And whatever the shortcomings of current practice, we live in a world in which fewer governments than ever before seem able to deny their people that choice.

deceptively simple —оманливо проста   consequences — наслідки inalienable —невідчужуваний     lose the rights —втрачати права   be entitled to — мати право   hold rights —володіти правами right-holder —носій права   deny rights —відмовляти в правах claim — вимагати respect rights —поважати права pressure on governments —тиск на уряди   implement a conception of social justice — втілювати в життя концепцію соціальної справедливості   exercise rights — здійснювати права obliged to govern wisely and for the common good —зобов’язані правити мудро і на загальне благо divine commandment — божа заповідь contingent political arrangements — імовірні політичні домовленості well-ordered society — добре упорядковане суспільство benefit from the political obligations of rulers — отримувати користь від політичних зобов'язань правителів treatise —трактат, монографія   estate — маєток, майно іn the absence of government — за відсутності уряду   disputes over rights — спори з приводу прав therefore — отже, тому   morally prior to and above the claims and interests of the government — морально вагоміші та вищі, ніж вимоги i інтереси уряду legitimate government — законний уряд   advance political claims — висувати політичні вимоги     despite the apparent universalism — попри явну універсальність     be recognized as right-holders —визнаватися носіями прав     burden of proof —тягар доведення     racial superiority — расова вищість assertions — твердження acquired virtue — набуті достоїнства   escape the logic of human rights — уникнути логіки прав людини   expand the recognized subjects of human rights — розширити коло визнаних суб’єктів прав людини   provoke controversy — викликати суперечки     major global political issue — основна світова політична проблема   eliminate discrimination based on race and gender — ліквідувати дискримінацію за ознаками раси та статі dispossessed groups — групи, позбавлені прав   to press for eliminating discrimination — вимагати ліквідації дискримінації     likewise —так само   equal concern and respect — однакова турбота і повага   collapse of the Soviet empire — падіння радянської імперії     deny internationally recognized human rights — відмовляти в міжнародно визнаних правах людини     nevertheless — все-таки, проте     spread of human rights — поширення прав людини   choose internationally recognized human rights — обирати міжнародно визнані права людини   shortcomings — недоліки

Activity 2. Read the text carefully paying attention to the words and phrases in bold. Check your knowledge looking at their Ukrainian equivalents in the margin.

Activity 3. Find in the text the following words and phrases and write their Ukrainian equivalents:

have the right to, be entitled to the same basic human rights, hold rights, be endowed with, use, enjoy, exercise, respect, protect, defend, extend, spread, insist on taking human rights seriously, bring human rights to the mainstream of, claim, demand, restrict, limit, abridge, deny, deprive, dispossess, abuse, violate, ensure, secure, guarantee, support, maintain, safeguard, enforce, implement, achieve, gain, advance, waive the right; exclusive, sole, natural, inalienable, civil, political, conjugal, individual, equal, fundamental rights.

Activity 4. Find in the text the following words and phrases and write their English equivalents:

Всі люди створені рівними. Вони наділені невідчужуваними правами на життя та свободу. Права людини, визнані на міжнародному рівні. Носії прав; здійснювати права; тягар доведення; розвинути теорію природних прав; надавати право; відмовляти в праві; вимагати рівних прав; расові меншини; усунути дискримінацію за ознаками статі та раси; божа заповідь; захищати права людини; обмежувати, забезпечувати права.