Problems of translating phraseological units

There are three types of categories regarded as part and parcel of the phraseology of any language. According to prof. A.V.Kunin, they are:

· phraseological units, or idioms, with completely or partially transferred meanings, e.g. a smart Aleck; Tom, Dick and Harry; Do you see any green in my eye?

· semi-idioms that have both literal and transferred meanings, e.g. chain reaction (a term in physics and a figurative expression), lay down one’s arms (a military term and a figurative expression);

· phraseomatic units have literal or phraseomatically bound meanings, e.g. in a hurry, safe and sound, pay attention to smth [Кунин 1984].

The characteristic feature of all the three groups is their stability which draws them together and affects the way of their translation.

A translator dealing with set expressions is confronted with some problems that are connected with their properties:

1) complicated semantic structure of phraseological units. It is made up of several components of meaning – figurative or denotational meaning, that is its actual sense; imagery component, i.e. literal meaning of a phraseological meaning; emotive charge; stylistic reference; evaluative component. Translation should reproduce all the components of meaning which is not easy to do since any of these components may be nationally specific, cf.

for a rainy day – на чёрный день (imagery component); задавать тон (both negative and positive) – to set an example in smth (positive), to set the tune (negative); Can the leopard change his spots? (literary idiom) – Чёрного кобеля не отмоешь добела (highly colloquial, verging on the vulgar).

2) Polysemy of many set expressions, often containing mutually contradictory meanings, e.g. no love lost – a) неприязнь, враждебное отношение, ненависть друг к другу; б) взаимная симпатия, взаимная страсть, привязанность (outdated).

3) Similarity in the surface structure, difference in meaning: a SL idiom and a TL idiom may be alike in their form, but absolutely different in meanings, cf. to lead smb by the nose (to control completely, to make smb do whatever you want) – водить к-л за нос.

4) There may be similar, though not identical SL units that should not be misinterpreted, cf. to lose one’s head – потерять голову, растеряться, to lose one’s mind – сойти с ума, лишиться рассудка.

5) An idiom can resemble a non-idiomatic expression, that is a free word group, but they have no common components of meaning, cf. to appeal to the country – распустить парламент, to go in couples – быть неразлучными.

These factors account for the major problems that arise in dealing with idioms which can be entered in special translation dictionaries of phraseological units and discussed on the basis of parallel texts of fiction. In the latter case idioms are used not only in their conventional form, but they often undergo different modifications which calls for special additional means of their adequate translation.

The most authoritative translation dictionaries of English and Russian phraseological units are the Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by S. Lubenskaya (M., 2004), English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by prof A.V.Kunin (M., 1984); Russian-English Dictionary of Proverbs and Sayings by prof. S.S.Kuzmin and N.L.Shadrin; Translator’s Russian-English Phraseological Dictionary by prof. S.S.Kuzmin (M., 2001).

The compilers of these dictionaries have resorted in translation of phraseological units to two basic means of translation in TL: phraseological and non-phraseological.

· To phraseological correspondences in TL refer:

1) (mono)equivalents, i.e., a TL expression coincides with the SL unit in meaning and in imagery, e.g. the thread of Ariadna – нить Ариадны, to kill time – убивать время, fair play – честная игра;

2) analogue, i.e., a set expression in TL that is equivalent to the SL in meaning, but differs completely or partially in its imagery. In such cases the authors use a symbol of approximate translation @ before a Russian analogue, e.g. to have one’s heart in one’s mouth @ сердце упало, to know the ropes - знать как свои пять пальцев, to see eye to eye with smb- сходиться во взглядах; the naked eye @ невооружённый глаз;

3) a selected synonym, i.e. a set of TL synonyms which can be used in translation either interchangeably or depending on the situation, e.g. to pay the devil (coll) – трудная задача (neutr), @ сам чёрт ногу сломит (coll), кой-кому туго приходится (neutr), творится что-то невероятное (neutr);

4) antonymic translation, i.e. rendering the meaning of a negative construction by means of a positive construction or vice versa, e.g. don’t count your chickens before they are hatched – цыплят по осени считают, не на того напал – you’ve picked the wrong person.

· Non-phraseological means of translation of set expressions include the following:

1) loan translation, i.e. a word-for-word translation of a SL idiom which has no ready correspondence in TL. This happens when a translator wants to retain the nationally specific imagery of the SL expression which may also be culturally relevant, e.g. as dead as a doormail – ‘мертвый как дверной гвоздь’, as tight as a drum – ‘тугой как барабан’. This means of translation can be used only in cases when it does not destroy the sense of an original expression and does not result in a misleading phrase, e.g. Чем дальше в лес, тем больше дров – The deeper into the wood you go, the more timber seems to grow (S.S. Kuzmin).

2) descriptive or free translation, i.e. translation of a SL expression by conveying its meaning by means of a free word combination, e.g. cross the floor of the house – парл. перейти из одной партии в другую, the cemetery vote – амер. голоса умерших избирателей, которые продолжают оставаться в избирательных списках.

3) translation by words, i.e. as a result of such a translation the levels of a SL unit of translation and its TL correspondence do not coincide, e.g. tit for tat – отплата, a stroke of fortune / of luck – удача, везение.

The actual practice of lexicographic translation shows that different means of translation do not compete with one another, but very frequently they are used side by side to ensure the greatest possible reflection of various aspects of a phraseological unit, e.g. King Log – Король Чурбан (loan-translation with stylistic compensation), (рохля, тюфяк (analogues); пассивный человек, не умеющий использовать представившейся ему возможности ( descriptive).

The compilers of translation dictionaries of idioms stick to the principle that there should be for a reader a free choice of correspondences in order to make an adequate decision for a particular occasion. For this reason they resort to various combinations of translation means mentioned above, cf. to twiddle one’s thumbs – бездельничать, лодырничать (word-level correspondences ); сидеть сложа руки, бить баклуши, лодыря гонять, валять дурака, почивать на лаврах, палец о палец не ударить (selected synonym); ни шатко, ни валко (analogue ); to run before one can walk – ‘начать бегать, не научившись ходить (loan translation); пытаться сделать что-либо, не имея достаточной подготовки (descriptive translation).

Apart from well-established means of translating set expressions there are some interesting solutions to idiomatic expressions which have no ready correspondences in TL. S.S. Kuzmin uses in his dictionary some additional ways of translation:

a) creates his own correspondences which are rhymed, e.g. А Васька слушает, да ест – The cat listened to advice but didn’t think twice;

b) uses components of some ready English correspondence to make his translation sound idiomatic, e.g. что бог послал – be told not to look a gift horse in the mouth.

The analysis of translation of idioms used in texts of fiction shows that a translator faces a number of difficulties:

1) when there are sets of correspondences in TL created by different ways it is necessary to make an appropriate choice of a correspondence which might be the best for a given context both in meaning, style and form, e.g. cf. a king’s ransom – огромная сумма, миллион (neutr); златые горы (usu in negative sentences); чёртова уйма (coll). E.g. It was no fortune or anything; I’d spent a king’s ransom in about two lousy weeks –Во всяком случае, не так уж много. За какие-нибудь две недели я истратил чёртову уйму.

2) Sometimes none of the dictionary correspondences are suitable for a given context, then it is necessary to look for a contextual substitution that is appropriate for a case, e.g. to set the Thames on fire – сделать ч-л необычное, из ряда вон выходящее; = достать луну с неба, cf “We make one big party. We all go to London to set the Thames on fire ” (D. Du Maurier, The Breaking Point) - «Составим большую компанию и отправимся в Лондон. Кутнём так, что чертям тошно станет». It is necessary to translate the SL expression by a highly colloquial unit. Another example: the phrase ‘You can’t eat your cake and have it’ is translated in A.V. Kunin’s dictionary in the following ways: нельзя делать одновременно две взаимоисключающие вещи; один пирог два раза не съешь. But in a text describing an illiterate rough man it is impossible to use either of the dictionary correspondences for semantic and stylistic reasons, cf. Что же поделаешь? Что с возу упало, то пропало.

3) A translator should be aware of the so-called pseudoequivalents which refer to idioms in two languages that are similar in their sense, but nationally specific in their imagery and form and possess a cultural colouring, e.g. They ping-pong people from Paul to Peter – Иван кивает на Петра, а Пётр на Ивана. In a text such correspondences can’t be regarded as interchangeable as they are nationally peculiar and dependent upon a certain cultural background, so they would seem unnatural and out of place against a different linguacultural background, cf. После поучительной беседы сотрудники милиции и спецслужб отпустили Машу-растеряшу домой. – The police and special branch officers gave that dizzy Miss Lizzy a few tips and let her go home.

4) Phraseological units are often not merely reproduced in speech, but quite frequently they are modified in order to enhance their expressive properties. Various modifications of set expressions in speech pose additional problems to a translator. E.g. Армию рубят – от ВДВ щепки летят. This is a complicated case of the modified phraseological unit which is based on its literal interpretation. In translation into English it is possible to retain a hint at the English phraseological unit You cannot make an omelette without breaking eggs and render the complicated structure of the English idiom in the following way Making Reduction: Breaking Air-Borne Forces.

It must be stressed that the authors of parallel dictionaries of idioms realize that in many cases it is insufficient to merely translate their linguistic meaning in order to understand all the implications and associations which are culturally relevant. That’s why very important information is supplied in linguistic and extralinguistic commentaries.

e.g. Thumbs up! – Отлично! Чудесно! Вот это здорово! (восклицание, выражающее удовлетворение или удовольствие) – comment on the character and the sphere of usage;

sabbatical year – творческий отпуск (каждый седьмой год преподаватель американского университета свободен от лекций и аудиторных занятий) – extralinguistic information about the educational system in the USA;

a Mark Tapley – Марк Тэпли – человек, не унывающий ни при каких обстоятельствах (по имени персонажа в романе Ч.Диккенса «Мартин Чеззлвит») - information about associations connected with the literary image of the novel.