I. Answer the following Questions

1. What was the historical and political background of the first bourgeois revolution in England at the beginning of the 17-th century?

2. What were the main problems in the relations between James I and the Parliament?

3. Why was James I`s foreign policy a failure?

4. Why did the quarrels between Charles I and the Parliament begin?

5. What did the struggle between the king and the Parliament turn into?

6. What were the main periods of the bourgeois revolution in England?

7. What was the difference between the events in England and the events in France during the French bourgeois revolution?

8. What can you say about Cromwell`s personality?

The Restoration

The period of 1660-88 is known as the Restoration. It is characterized by a struggle for power between the feudal aristocracy and the bourgeoisie and gentry which had secured a dominant position in society during the revolution. The feudal aristocracy was dreaming of a complete return to the pre-revolutionary days, while the bourgeoisie desperately tried to retain the privileges gained during the revolution.

Charles II despite his promise to pardon all the participants of the revolution soon forgot his commitments. With the help of the new Parliament, which was now full of Cavaliers he attempted to regain the losses experienced by the royalists during the revolution. Cromwell's body was taken out of Westminster Abbey and hung like a traitor's at Tyburn. And land taken by the Commonwealth government from the crown and the church was now regained.

In 1665 was broke out between England and Holland. Some of the Dutch settlements in America were seized by the English troops among them the colony of New Amsterdam, which was renamed New York in honour of James, brother of Charles II and heir to the throne who had the title of the Duke of York. At this time London was struck by a terrible disaster – the plague. The Great Fire of London began in a baker's house in Pudding Lane, on September 2, 1666. The fire left many people without homes. However, it stopped the plague. The French had entered the war on the side of the Dutch, and things were going badly for England.

Charles II was always eager for an opportunity to the free himself from Parliament, to find other ways of obtaining supplies and money. Now the French king, Louis XIV, made an offer. If England would join France in a new alliance against the Dutch, he would give Charles enough money to make parliamentary supplies unnecessary. But Charles must also promise secretly to have Catholicism restored in England. Charles agreed to these conditions, and a secret treaty was made between him and Louis. Shaftesbury discovered the secret promise and left the government. On leaving the government Shaftesbury, later joined by Buckingham formed an opposition party in 1679. This party expressing the interests of the London City financiers, merchants and the gentry was for limiting the power of monarchy and extending that of Parliament. They were utterly opposed to Catholicism. In the same year another party was organized by Danby, the king's leading adviser. This royal party favoured the royal prerogative and the Anglican Church. The court party expressed the interests of the landed aristocracy. During that time, Shaftesbury's men had stalled to use the word “tory” as a rude word for the court party. It was an Irish word, meaning a Roman Catholic outlaw. The court party, the Tories, had replied by calling members of the country party “whigs”, a rude Scottish word meaning Presbyterian rebels. These names, Whig and Tory, stayed with the two parties which now began to develop. However, they weren't parties in the modem sense of the word, they were rather political groups of the ruling class. It was much later, in the nineteenth century that the Tories and Whigs developed as real political parties with their national organizations becoming the Conservative and Liberal parties.

When the king died in 1685 he left James, his brother, the unopposed heir to the throne. After he was crowned as James II he began to appoint Catholics to the highest posts in the state. James II`s main aim was to improve the position of his fellow Catholics.

To the Whigs and part of the Tories the necessity for a radical change was apparent. They were completely dissatisfied with the pro-Catholic policy of James II, which threatened their interests and could lead to a mass movement of the populace.

Now the opposition was looking towards Holland, the home of James's Protestant daughter Mary and here husband William of Orange, who was called “Dutch William”. He was the key of the situation. His claim to the English throne was good, when coupled with that of his wife Mary. Seven leading Whigs and Tories had sent an invitation to Dutch William. They promised him support for an invasion. William accepted the invitation and made a triumphal journey to London in 1688. James II fled for France. William and Mary were crowned in February 1689.

The events of 1688 are called by bourgeois historians as the Glorious Revolution. In 1689 the new king was compelled to sign the Bill of Rights which contributed to the establishment of constitutional or parliamentary monarchy. Under this law, taxes could be levied by Parliament only. Such maters as mustering the army and the allocation of funds for its maintenance were also decided by Parliament. In other words, it was decreed that questions of prime importance were to be decided not by the king but by Parliament. No English king or government could follow policies which did not have Parliament's approval. No minister could continue in office without the support of the majority, the greater number of MPs.

In the same year as the Bill of Rights, William signed a parliamentary Act relieving the Protestant non-conformists from the strict laws brought against them, while Catholics were barred to occupy government posts or teach at universities.

The development of philosophy and science, and their challenge to accepted religious beliefs, is one of the most characteristic features of the 17-th century. The best traditions of the 16th century were further developed in the 17-th century. For instance, the philosophical work of Francis Bacon was carried still further by Thomas Hobbs. John Locke attempted materialistic concepts of the universe theory. English art and architecture reflected new trends. Classicism became predominant both in English art and architecture. Sir Christopher Wren made the greatest contribution to the rebuilding of London in stone. St Paul's Cathedral is considered to be the finest Protestant Cathedral and it was Wren who designed and built it anew. One of the most magnificent of prose writers is John Milton.