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Language Focus. Middle English



TheNorman Invasion marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in England. The whole state was already in the hands of the Norman barons, so the Norman language became the official language in the country. The Anglo-Saxon population continued to speak their native language. The main dialects of Old English were preserved in their boundaries, but as there were no Anglo-Saxon kingdoms already, these dialects are named according to the territory they were spread on: Northern, Midland, Southern and Kentish. The most important feature of Middle English dialects is the division of the Midland dialect into East Midland and West Midland. At the end of the Middle Ages, the East Midland dialect got into the leading position, but that time all the dialects were equal. From the very beginning of the Conquest there must have been diglossia in England, when French was used as the High language and English as the Low language. The Norman dialect of the conquerors soon merged with the Anglo-Saxon dialects and for a long time people spoke so-called Anglo-Norman – the Norman dialect with English elements. Anglo-Norman existed till the end of the XIV-th century after which disappeared. Except these two languages, there was the third language, which functioned at that time in England and all over Europe – it was Latin, the language of the church and science.

Old English, which was a synthetic language, changed its structure during the Middle Ages. The change began when the fixed stress and reduction of unstressed vowels led to the loss of grammatical endings. In the Middle English characteristics of the main parts of speech changed.

Middle English was characterized by lots of borrowings from the French language. English took the words, which described the more complicated feudal relations. English adopted words describing society such as manor, noble, baron, serve, command. The words relating to administration and law were also borrowed. For example: charter, council, accuse, court, crime. Lots of military terms such as arms, troops, guard, navy, battle, victory, were adopted. The current terms for family relationships as uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, cousin, also came from France.

The knowledge of French gave the English the access to the literature of the Continent, there was a great influx of French words and words adopted from Latin. By the end of the 14-th century the enriched English language became the language of the educated classes and the official language of the state.

The language of Normans greatly influenced the lexical structure of English, but its grammatical structure was preserved. English borrowed a lot of French words, not only notional, but also prepositions and conjunctions. The French borrowings were often used together with English words, which led to the differences in meaning. Sometimes French words replaced Old English words. The word crime replaced firen and uncle replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman.

I. Answer the following questions:

1. In what way did the Danish invasions influence peasants' life?

2. What were the principal features of feudal social relations?

3. When was the country organized into earldoms?

4. When and how did Normandy emerge?

5. What do you know about Harold?

6. When did William and his army take London?

7. How did William the Conqueror manage to suppress rebellions against his authority?

8. When did the first population census in European history take place? What was it?

King Arthur

Was King Arthur a real person, or is it all a story? Oh yes; there was a real Arthur, an Arthur who fought the Saxon invader and won a great battle at Mount Badon A.D. 500. But around this shadowy human figure, fighting among the mountains of Wales or on the wild cliffs of Cornwall (where you can still see, at Tintagel, the ruins of Arthur's castle), has grown up a great collection of romantic stories that run like a brilliant thread through the pattern of English literature from the early Anglo-Saxon and Norman writers, through Chaucer and Malory to Tennyson. These old stories tell us of Arthur's miraculous coming, of how he became King and gathered together a brave company of knights – the Knights of the Round Table. Why was it round? Did it have any special meaning? Yes, it was to show that no knight, not even the King himself, was “head of the table”; all were equal and the King was just “first among equals”. You can still see the table – a great round piece of wood hanging on one of the inner walls of Winchester Castle. But though 600 places in the British Isles claim some memory of him, he is for ever essentially the hero of Wales, and it's rather significant that the Welshman who became King of England, Henry VII, called his eldest son Arthur.

The Story of Sir Galahad

One day as King Arthur sat in his Court at Caerleon surrounded by the Knights of the Round Table a servant entered and said, “Sir King I have seen a strange sight. As I walked along the bank of the river I saw a great stone, and it floated on the water. There was a sword through the stone and the handle of the sword was thick with precious stones.” When they heard this, the King and all the Knights went to see this strange thing. It was just as the servant had said; moreover, when they looked more closely they read the words on the sword: “No one shall draw me out of this stone except the knight at whose side I am to hang. And he must be the best knight in the world.” The knights asked Sir Launcelot to draw the sword, for he was known as the best knight in the world. But Sir Launcelot said: “The sword is not for me. I dare not try to take it.” Many of the knights tried, but none could draw out the sword. So they returned and took their places again at the Round Table.

No sooner were they seated than the door opened and an old man, dressed in white, entered the hall, followed by a young knight in red armour, by whose side hung an empty sword-sheath.

The old man bowed low to the King and said, “Sir, I bring you a young knight, Sir Galahad; through him Britain shall win great glory; and he shall see the Holy Grail.” “The Holy Grail!” said the knights, their faces full of awe, for the Holy Grail was the cup from which Christ had drunk at the Last Supper. It had been brought to Wales by Joseph of Arimathea, but because of man's sinfulness it had been taken from human sight. None of the knights had seen it, for it could be seen only by the pure in heart, and all of them had sinned.

That evening as each knight sat in his seat round the table there was a noise of thunder, so great that the whole palace seemed to shake, and there came into the hall a great beam of light, brighter than any of them had seen before. The light touched them all, and a sweet scent was in the air. And in the beam was the Holy Grail. But no one could see it except the pure-hearted Sir Galahad. They all sat silent with amazement and awe until Arthur rose and gave thanks to God for the vision that had come to them.

Then Arthur's nephew, Sir Gawain, stood up and said that he would make a vow to go for a year and a day in search of the Holy Grail. Immediately other knights, a hundred and fifty in all, rose up and swore to do the same; and among them was Sir Galahad.

King Arthur was full of sorrow at this. His knights would wander, into far-off countries; many of them, he knew, would forget that they were in search of the Holy Grail, and would go on other adventures: and never return.

So the next day, after they had worshipped in the church at Camelot, the knight who had made the vow rode together out of Camelot, and the people wept as they rode aw y for they felt they would never return. Sir Galahad wandered for years searching for the Holy Grail. He had many adventures (every one of which would be a separate). He rescued maidens who had been imprisoned, he was himself imprisoned for a year by an evil king in Sarras in Babylon where Joseph of Arimathea had lived 300 years before teaching the people the true faith. Finally he was freed and he forgave the king who had imprisoned him, and when that king died, Galahad was made king. But though at times he had seen again the light of the Holy Grail, he never saw it in reality. Every morning, early, he used to go into the little church to pray. Then one morning, very early, as he knelt, he saw a man in the dress of a bishop; and the bishop was surrounded by a great band of angels. The bishop said, “Come here, servant of the Lord, and see what you have so long wished to see”. And Galahad took the Grail in his trembling hands. “Do you know who I am”, said the bishop?” “No”, said the knight. “I am Joseph of Arimathea whom God has sent to show you the perfect vision of the Holy Grail.” Then Galahad knelt and prayed. As he prayed a hand came from Heaven and took away the Cup. And when, a little later, the people came to the church, they found Sir Galahad dead.

What a wonderful! But what happened to King Arthur?

Well, though some of the knights returned, the great days of the Round Table were over. While Arthur was fighting his enemies in France, the wicked knight Sir Modred, whom Arthur had left to rule the land while he was away, plotted against the King and gathered together an army to fight against him. Arthur returned and a great battle was fought in the far west of Britain by the seashore. The traitors were defeated and Modred was killed by Arthur, but only one of Arthur's knights, Sir Bedivere, was left, and Arthur himself was very badly wounded.

Though we can see Arthur's grave at Glastonbury, where it says:

“Here lies Arthur, once King, and King to be” many people believed that he was not dead but was still living in the happy valley of Avilion until his country needed him, when he would come again to free it from its enemies."

I. Answer the following questions:

1. Was King Arthur a real person?

2. What English writers have written about him?

3. Why was the Round Table round?

4. Was Sir Galahad present when news was brought by a servant about the sword?

5. Why did Sir Launcelot not try to take the sword from the stone?

6. What was the Holy Grail?

7. Why had none of the knights seen the Holy Grail?

8. What did some people believe about King Arthur?

CHAPTER IV

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (XI – XV CENTURIES)

The Economic and Social Development of the State

The whole economic development of the country from the 11-th to the 14th century illustrates the increasing degree of exploitation of the peasant by the feudal lords, as well as by the church. Trade was increasing throughout the country with merchants and middlemen who travelled from manor to manor and market to market. Much trading consisted of wool, which could be profitably sold not only at the local market but more especially to the cloth-manufacturing towns of the European continent, particularly Flanders. England was not originally a cloth-weaving country, and when Flemish weavers were brought into the country in the 14th century to teach the secrets of their trade to English peasants and craftsmen, the resulting cloth manufacture meant a still more rapid increase of the volume of trade and more rapid accumulation of wealth. The towns grew rapidly in size, importance and wealth, and became centres of handicraft production of all kinds. The lords of the manor were no longer content to accept merely the surplus produce of their peasants for their own immediate use, but began to increase their wealth by the sale of agricultural products at the country markets. Striving to achieve greater productivity the lords were interested to pay money to the peasant who would sell his labour for hire, rather than rely on forced labour which was unproductive. The peasant who had been unfortunate with his harvest quite often became a hired agricultural labourer. In this way wage labourers were formed, without land of their own. This process of “commuting” labour services for money was spreading gradually over the country, but it was not complete, when it was interrupted by a disaster in the middle of the 14th century, the plague or Black Death, which spread all throughout Europe including England.

In the 12-th century a new dynasty was established in England – the so-called Plantagenet dynasty. Henry II (1154 – 89), became King of England. He came from France and his family name was Angevin, but he was called Henry Plantagenet, because that was the name of Henry's father, the Count of Anjou. The name Plantagenet was taken from their badge, which was a sprig of planta genista, the Latin name for broom. His domain included large possessions in France. To his new English possessions he soon added some Scotch territory, established his lordship over Wales and made “conquests” in Ireland. Henry was the first English king to attempt the conquest of Ireland. The country was seriously divided with little central government. In 1169 an Irish chieftain asked Henry for aid, and in reply the king sent an adventurer, Richard Strongbow, who proceeded to conquer much of the country. Two years later Hemy II himself crossed the Irish Channel and became recognized as Lord of Ireland. However, he succeeded in establishing his authority only in a small district around Dublin known as “The Pale” because of fierce Irish opposition. The events marked the beginning of the long struggle of the Irish people for independence against English yoke. To rule such a vast domain effectively, Henry had to have considerable money. To secure this, he restored the Exchequer to its earlier prominence and made it aid him in collecting the customary taxes, as well as some newly introduced taxes. With this money he employed mercenaries for his army instead of using unwilling vassals. He removed most of the old sheriffs and replaced them by appointees of his own who were better tax collectors. Henry II had four sons, two of which died in his lifetime. When Henry II died he was succeeded by Richard, best known as the Lionhearted, who loved adventure and conflict and typified the chivalry of the time. All but six months of his ten years' reign he spent abroad either on a crusade or on the continent of Europe. On Richard's death John, the fourth son of Henry II, became king (1199 – 1216).

The main provisions of feudalism may be regarded as a contract between the king, on the one hand, and his vassals, on the other. It was recognized that the king had certain rights and duties. In the same way the vassal had his corresponding rights and duties. If the feudal contract was openly violated by the king, the barons, having exhausted all other means, could rebel against the king. This of course was a very risky thing, especially in England, where the power of the Crown was very great.

John Lackland, as he was known in English history because he practically lost everything that he possessed, thought himself above the existing feudal laws and used the most evil means for forcing money out of his people. The church was similarly treated, and the towns, that had become comparatively independent, were made to pay all kinds of taxes and fines. The result was the complete isolation of the Crown from those sections that had previously been its supporters. John was unwise enough to make an attack on the church over the filling of the vacant seat of Archbishop of Canterbury at the time when Pope Innocent III was in power, for then the Catholic Church was extremely powerful. Pope Innocent III made use of this situation in England and declared John excommunicated and deposed of his powers as king. Moreover, Innocent III persuaded the kings of France and Scotland to make war on him. John's forces were crushed and the English barons refused to fight. John stood alone. Unwillingly he submitted and on June 15, 1215, at a field called Runnymede by the river Thames John signed the program of demands expressed by the barons in a document known as Magna Charta or the Great Charter. This document of sixty-three sections provided that the church and the barons were to retain their old rights and liberties. The ancient liberties of London and of other towns were guaranteed. Merchants were to be permitted to trade without paying heavy tolls. However, most important was the clause decreeing that no freeman was to be detained or punished except “by the lawful judgement of his peers and the law of the land”. The class character of this clause is most evident for only the freeman, or in fact the privileged classes could make use of this right. One of the specific points of the Great Charter was the setting up of a permanent committee of 25 barons to see that John's promises were kept. It also said that John must govern with the Council's advice and permission. This particular device did not work well but it gave the barons the advantage to start a political struggle against the king if necessary as a class rather than as individuals.

Magna Charta meant great changes in the feudal system. Even more important, however, was the Charter's influence on those classes in future centuries – the bourgeoisie and the gentry – who stood against the king's powers and demanded a limitation of his rights.

The moment the barons dispersed, John denounced the Charter and gathered an army. A war followed which v/as interrupted by the death of John. His son Henry was only nine. Government was earned out in his name by a group of barons. They became stronger than ever before. Within this period the principles of Magna Charta came to be accepted as the basis of the law at least in theory. During the minority of Henry III the baronial group governed the country in the name of the king. When Henry came of age the struggle resumed, for he was much influenced by his French wife's foreign friends to whom he gave lands that the barons thought should have been kept for themselves. Moreover, Henry III was under the great influence of the church. The result was that while Henry was constantly making demands for money the administration of the state grew less efficient.

When Henry III allowed himself to be persuaded by the Pope in 1257 to accept the kingdom of Sicily for his son Edward and asked the Council to provide the money necessary to conquer the island there was a very large opposition in the country. The barons refused the money. However, they were not united and the king made use of this. The civil war started in the country. In 1258 the barons and churchmen held an assembly and drew up the Provisions of Oxford. That document provided that the Justiciar, Chancellor, and Treasurer be appointed with their consent, and that abuses of the king's officials in local districts be ended. A Council of Fifteen was to govern England and control the ministers. Other committees were to look after finances and the church. The barons soon disagreed among themselves, however, and the king took advantage of their disputes. Then it was that a new leader of the barons appeared in the person of Simon de Montfort. In the civil war (1264 – 1265), Simon's forces defeated those of the king at the battle of Lewes (1264) and captured the Icing and his son Edward. It was under these circumstances that Simon summoned the first English parliament in January 1265. Besides the barons there were knights (2 knights from each shire) and burgesses from the towns (representatives of the well-to-do dwellers of the towns). Simon had summoned these representatives in order to gain their support and consolidate his power. However, he failed in the latter. Prince Edward escaped, defeated Simon and killed him.

Although the king was now back in power, the parliamentary experiment had made its mark. Simon's creation did not die with him. Prince Edward continued it when he became king. Two knights from each county were summoned, and two burgesses from each town. Under future kings, the custom grew. It continued calling to council not only the barons, but persons to represent the “commons” that is, the local communities. At first it was only a way of telling these leading citizens of towns what new taxes to expect. They listened; but they did not talk. However, eventually the practice changed and parliament assumed its role as a fiscal body responsible for taxation.

The composition of parliament, where there were knights and burgesses, was of important significance too. The knights or lesser landowners lived on their estates and made the largest possible income from them. They were greatly interested in the development of the wool-trade. Thus they had many common interests with the merchants and wealthy craftsmen of the towns. Later on the gentry emerged from these landowners, as well as the bourgeoisie from the top of the town dwellers. These two classes were to play the most important role in the gradual consolidation of power of the English parliament, which assumed its supreme legislative role in the seventeenth century during the English bourgeois revolution. In the course of the 14th century parliament took its modern shape consisting of two Houses – the House of Lords and the House of Commons. In this division the knights of the shire took their places in the House of Commons with the burgesses, whereas the lords and the top clergy sat in the House of Lords. The new king, Edward I (1272 – 1307) concentrated his efforts to conquer Wale's and subdue Scotland, unlike his predecessors who had been busy with their possessions in France. Shortly after his accession to the throne, Edward faced a rebellion in Wales led by Prince Llewelyn. After a struggle of several years he defeated the Welsh leader and extended into that region the system of English law and shires. After having suppressed a further rebellion, he placed the country under the direct control of the English ruler (1284), and introduced further changes in local government. Thus by the end of the 13th century Wales became fully subdued by England.

Attempts were made to conquer Scotland. Rival claimants to the Scotch throne submitted their claims to him. Among them were two nobles, Robert the Bruce and John Baliol. Edward I supported Baliol. However, soon that ruler rebelled against his overlord Edward I. The latter deposed Baliol of power and assumed control of Scotland himself. The Scots, however, formed an alliance with France and invaded northern England. Edward in turn invaded Scotland, and thereafter he repeated his invasions several times. Finally he left Scotland taking with him the legendary Stone of Scone, on which the Scottish kings had always been crowned and fashioned it into part of a sumptuous chair – Coronation Chair which ever since has been used at coronations of English Icings. However, departing from Scotland in 1286 Edward I left an army behind and an officer to represent him. Nevertheless, the Scotch would not yield to the English yoke. Robert the Bruce headed the national uprising, killed Edward's chief officer in Scotland and drove the English out of the country. In 1306 he was crowned king. Edward responded by sending an army north. Bruce was defeated but escaped to an island between Scotland and Ireland. Though in a desperate position Bruce managed to muster an army and retake most of what the English seized. Edward I died and the new English king, Edward II, was reluctant to make a new attempt. However, seven years later, Edward II decided to attack Robert the Bruce in Scotland. He managed to cross the border and reach the Bannock burn or stream just south of Stirling Castle, which was not taken by the Scots and remained in English hands. Here in the battle of Bannockburn, as it was named, in 1314 the English suffered a most serious defeat. As a result of this defeat Scotland maintained its independence for the next three centuries.

In 1348 – 1349 a disastrous bubonic plague swept over England, carrying death and destruction in its wake. The Black Death in England interrupted a process that had been transforming the villages for nearly a hundred years. It was already noted above that from quite early in the 13th century under the influence of economic changes throughout the country and the development of trade, began a process of commutation or the replacement of labour services by rents. Many of the serfs had come to an arrangement with their lords to pay money instead of services. The plan was convenient for both sides. This process of commuting services for money was spreading gradually over the country by the time of the Black Death. The effects of the plague were momentous. The great decrease in population increased wages, gave more freedom to the serfs, prostrated fanning, and caused the land to decline in value. It disrupted industry and trade and depopulated whole villages. From 1347 to 1350 at least one-third of the whole population perished. In 1350 Parliament, composed almost entirely of landowners attempted to check the rise of wages by the Statute of Labourers ordering the labourers to take the old rate of wages under pain of imprisonment, slavery or death. But even these penalties could not make men obey the laws. The rise in prices went on and men could not live on the old wages.

Then the landlords tried to solve the problem in another way. They decided to revive the old practice of rendering duties to the landlord and commutation was refused to the serf. The poll taxes of 1379 and 1380 (“poll” being Middle English for “head”), which were extremely heavy for the poor, furthered the growing discontent in the country which inevitably led to open revolt. Alongside this development in the countryside and towns there was overwhelming discontent of the people with the church. The members of the church hierarchy were among the greatest feudal magnates and the cruellest exploiters of the peasants. Apart from exploitation, the life they led was shameful for its luxury and immorality. The first fundamental attack on the position of the church came from John Wyclif (1324-84), a teacher at Oxford University. Wyclif attacked the pope and the bishops, pointing at their fine palaces, their liking for ceremony, their immorality. His followers attacked many Catholic dogmas.

Wyclif spread his message by writing some of his books in English instead of Latin, the language of the church. His followers were called Lollards, because of the low and quiet way in which they said their prayers. Some of the Lollards went into the countryside to preach Wyclif s message to the common people. Wyclif told others to translate the Bible into English so that it could be understood by people who knew no Latin. He exposed the church in its interpretation of the Bible. Many people became Lollards, and therefore heretics. They were persecuted by the church and the feudals. The Lollards increased in numbers and joined the other discontented people in the countryside. Many of the Lollard priests, such as John Ball himself, became leaders of the peasants' revolt. Lollardry became a doctrine of social protest more and more bound with the struggle of the people not only against the church, but also against the authority and tyranny of the feudal lords in general. The programmes of the rebel peasants which also included the demands to confiscate the church lands were undoubtedly worked out under the influence of Lollardry. Wyclif`s doctrines were not forgotten after his death. They were earned to continental Europe. Hence Wyclif is regarded as a forerunner of the Reformation.

WA T TYLER AND THE PEASANTS' REVOLT

The Peasants' Revolt, led by Wat Tyler in 1381, is one of the most remarkable in English history. It was the first rising in England in which most of the people participating fought for the idea that all men are equal. Among the rebels were some brave and exceptional men. There was the craftsman Wat Tyler, a tiler by trade, then there was the priest John Bull, and there were many others who remain nameless for this was the rising of the most downtrodden, the common people, the Commons of England, as they called themselves, against those who were holding them down with an iron hand – the nobility.

At that time most of the common people worked on the land, and the majority were serfs, the word comes from Latin “servus” – a slave. Though they were not actually slaves, they were tied to the land, which belonged to the landlord – their lord. From him they rented small strips of land and to pay their rent they worked the land of the lord free of charge three or four days a week.

The serf could not leave his village without the permission of the lord and if he did, he became an outlaw roaming the great forests. Despite his hard labour, he had little to eat for most of his produce, like his labour, went to the lord. The lord's land had to be ploughed first, and when the crops were ripe, it was the lord's crops, which had to be harvested before their own. And although the immediate cause of the rising was due to the harsh action of the tax collectors, the people had been preparing for some time by then. John Bull, the preacher, and Wat Tyler, as well as others, were going around the country, speaking, preaching and rousing people, telling them to hold themselves in readiness. As time went on and the taxes grew heavier and heavier, they became more and more determined to take the law into their hands.

After the first fighting broke out in Brentwood, Essex, the rising spread like a heath fire. Essex and Kent rose first and as the news spread to the other counties, people rose in its wake. At a Great Council held on June 7th, 1381 they elected Wat Tyler as their leader and declared that they were the True Commons of England. Whenever the rebels stormed the houses and castles of lords, they destroyed Rent Rolls – important legal documents that were in fact written evidence of serfdom. Apart from storming and burning the houses of nobility, little damage was done and few people were killed. Lawyers, however, were captured and killed, because they were regarded as enemies of the peasantry. They represented the nobility against the peasantry, and the lawyers had to be destroyed together with Rent Rolls.

The Peasants' Army with Wat Tyler as their leader marched towards London. As they advanced, they stormed the prisons and set all the prisoners free. The London merchants told the rebel leaders that London would welcome them and that they could enter easily since one of the merchants was in charge of London Bridge, while another in charge of Aid Gate.

London fell to Wat Tyler without a blow being struck, the aldermen taking the guard off London Bridge, allowed the Kent Army to enter unopposed. The rebels entered London in a disciplined way. Everything was conducted in a quiet, orderly manner. Even the most hostile observers admitted that there was no looting, no bad behaviour. All supplies of food and clothing were paid for. The Temple, the home of lawyers, was ransacked. Every Rent Roll, Tax Record and Charter was burned. The Newgate and Fleet prisons, both with the foulest reputation, were also destroyed. Then the Rebels' Army besieged the Tower where the King and the Council were meeting.

The nobility was seriously alarmed. They had never seen anything like this before. They were besieged by their own serfs and artisans. The Royal Council discussed various proposals and accepted the plan of the cunning and cautious Earl of Salisbury. By this plan the rebels should be deceived with fair words and promises. The King should promise them all they asked for, the promises, however, would be valueless, they would not be kept, but the rebels would not know that. They would accept the King's word and they would then go home satisfied that they had won their demands. When this plan was agreed upon, word was sent that the king would meet the rebels in the village of Mile End near London.

The common people had a simple faith in the King. They believed he could do no wrong, and that if they went to him and told him of their hardships and sufferings, he would do all in his power to help them. So when the king rode forward to the appointed place, the entire army fell on its knees welcoming their lord. Wat Tyler and his escort marched forward and made two requests. The first was that they should be allowed to seize and execute all traitors to the King, and secondly that the King should grant the petitions which they had drawn up. The petitions requested that all the men should be free of servitude, that the King should pardon all the men who had taken part in the rising and grant them peace and so on.

In keeping with their treacherous plan the King asked to see the petitions and, when he had read them, agreed to everything. Thirty clerks were ordered immediately by the King to draw up the charters granting the petitions. Then he handed his banner over to Wat Tyler so that all might know that now Tyler was acting on the King's behalf. Having done that, the King, carefully following each detail of the plan, advised the peasants to return to their homes. Many of the rebels therefore began to leave Mile End for their homes but others were more cautious. These, including Wat Tyler and John Bull, stayed. The King had handed his power over to them and they were going to see that justice was done. Besides they had other demands to make to the King: Mile End was only the beginning. Whilst the charters were being drawn and distributed, Wat Tyler with a large body of more determined rebels rode to the Tower. Here, too, despite the 600 well-armed men guarding it there was no opposition to Tyler's entry.

When the King and his advisers heard that the Tower had fallen, they retired to a strong fortress near Ludgate Hill and it was here that a second and more dangerous plan of action was worked out.

It was late afternoon when the king's party reached Srnithfield to meet the rebels again. A fair distance separated the two forces. Richard sent Walsworth over to the rebels to summon Wat Tyler to his presence. Wat, mounted on a small pony and escorted by one attendant who carried the banner, rode over to the King and his desperate court.

Tyler rode to the King in great confidence. When he reached the King, he dismounted, dropped on one knee and greeted the King. When the greeting was finished, the King demanded to know why the Rebels' Army had not left London. Wat replied that there were other demands he wished to place before Richard, and at the King's request, he gave him all the details.

Richard did not even give it a thought. He only knew he had to agree with everything and therefore he said that he promised all they had asked for. Wat could hardly believe his ears. He became so excited at his success that he called for a drink of beer to celebrate. When he had finished his drink, he went to climb on his pony – but found himself surrounded by the King's retinue. The armed circle became more and more menacing as it closed in closer and closer on Wat Tyler.

While Tyler, severely wounded by the King's, men, lay dying on the ground, the King rode out to the Rebels' Army, who could see nothing, and told them: “Wat Tyler has been knighted, your demands have been granted”. And then, as had been prearranged, he ordered the army to march to St. John's Fields where, he said, he and the newly knighted Tyler would be waiting for them. To the rebels the King's person was sacred, still they had no reason to mistrust him. So when the rebels heard the King's words, they were overjoyed and began to march away from the city to meet Tyler. When the rebels reached St. John's Fields, they were surrounded there by the King's army “like sheep in a pen”. They were attacked and cut to pieces, their helplessness still intensified by the grim sight of Wat Tyler's head exhibited to them on a lance.

Although the King and his court triumphed, the rebels did not accept their defeat quietly. Once they recovered from the first days of fear, they began to demand that the promises made in their charters should be carried out. Many of them fought to death.





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studopedia.org - Ñòóäîïåäèÿ.Îðã - 2014-2025 ãîä. Ñòóäîïåäèÿ íå ÿâëÿåòñÿ àâòîðîì ìàòåðèàëîâ, êîòîðûå ðàçìåùåíû. Íî ïðåäîñòàâëÿåò âîçìîæíîñòü áåñïëàòíîãî èñïîëüçîâàíèÿ (0.651 ñ)...