A few examples

1. Omission (опущение). Summer rains in Florida may be violent, while they last. -Летом во Флориде бывают сильные ливни. From the point of view of the Russian language, the clause "while they last" is redundant and would make the Russian sentence sound very unnatural if it were to be translated.

2. Addition (добавление). The policeman waved me on – Полицейский помахал мне рукой, показывая, что я могу проезжать. Or: Полицейский рукой просигналил (показал), что я могу проезжать. The compact English phrase "to wave on" has no compact equivalent in Russian.

3. Transposition (изменение порядка слов). Transposition involves changing the order of words in the target text (TT) as compared to the source text (ST). Typically, an English sentence has a "subject+predicate+object+adverbial adjunct+place+time" word order: A delegation of Moscow State University students arrived in Gainesville yesterday. Вчера в Гейнзвил прибыла группа студентов из Московского государственного университета. A typical Russian sentence would generally have a reverse word order: time+place+predicate+subject+object+adverbial adjunct.

4. Change of grammatical forms (изменение грамматических форм). For example, in the Russian translation of ‘Prime Minister Tony Blair was hit by a tomato’.. the original Passive Voice construction is changed to an Active Voice construction: ‘ в британского премьера попал помидор’..

5. Loss-of-meaning compensation (компенсация смысловых потерь) involves adding to or reinforcing a TT in one place to compensate for something that hasn't been translated in a different place in the ST: / ain 't got no time for that kind of thing! - Нет у меня времени на такую фигню! The impossibility of preserving the expressive impact of the substandard double negation in the English ST is compensated for on a lexical level in the Russian TT by using the more expressive Russian slang noun "фигня" for the English expressively-neutral noun "thing". Similarly, to compensate for the double negation in You ain't seen nothin 'yet! an emphatic syntactic construction can be used in the Russian translation - To ли еще будет!

6. Concretization (конкретизация) is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with narrower meaning or when preserving the original concepts with broader meaning would result in an awkward translation: There were pictures on all the walls and there was a vase with flowers on the table. - На всех стенах комнаты висели картины, а на столе стояла ваза с цветами.

7. Generalization (генерализация) is used when something in the TL is usually expressed using concepts with broader meaning or when preserving the original concepts with narrower meaning would result in an awkward translation: She ordered a daiquiri. (= a sweet alcoholic drink made of rum and fruit juice) - Она заказана коктейль. Or: There used to be a drugstore (a Walgreens pharmacy) around here. I need to buy some soda water. - Здесь раньше был магазин. Мне надо купить газированной воды. In the latter example, translating drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy as аптека or аптека "Уолгринз " would not only be baffling to a Russian - because in Russia they do not sell газированную воду in аптеках - but it would also be unnecessary as for the purposes of communication магазин is just as good in this context. The more specific drugstore or Walgreens pharmacy is translated here by the more general term магазин.

8. Antonymic translation (антонимический перевод) involves translating a phrase or clause containing a negation using a phrase or clause that does not contain a negation or vice versa: / don't think you 're right. - Я думаю, что вы не правы.

9. Meaning extension or sense development (смысловое развитие) involves translating a cause by its effect or vice versa: You can't be serious. - Вы, должно быть, шутите. (Cause is translated by its effect: Since you can't be serious, it follows that you must be joking). In the above example meaning extension is combined with an antonymic translation. Another example: He answered the phone. - Он поднял трубку. You can't speak on the phone unless you have lifted the receiver. The effect "answered" in the ST is translated by its cause "lifted the receiver" ("поднял трубку") in the ТТ.

10. Metonymic translation (метонимический перевод). A metonymic translation is similar to meaning extension. Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated, as in the use of Moscow for the Russian government. Using a part for the whole, the whole for one of its parts, or one of two contiguous concepts for the other are typical metonymic figures of speech. E.g.: School broke up for the summer recess. –Занятия прекратились. Все ушли на летние каникулы. (Или: Начались летние каникулы.)

11. Sentence integration (объединение предложений) involves combining two or more sentences into one: Your presence isn't required. Nor is it desirable. - Ваше присутствие не требуется и далее нежелательно.

12. Sentence fragmentation (членение предложений) involves splitting one complex or compound sentence into two or more simpler sentences: People everywhere are confronted with the need to make decisions in the face of ignorance and this dilemma is growing. -Люди везде сталкиваются с необходимостью принятия решений при отсутствии достаточной информации. Эта проблема возникает все чаще и чаще.

Both sentence integration and sentence fragmentation are prompted by considerations of text cohesion (связность текста) and coherence (логичность изложения). Cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and sentences in a text. Coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text. Both concern the ways stretches of language are connected to each other. In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to each other by virtue of lexical and grammatical dependencies. In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtue of conceptual or meaning dependencies as perceived by language users.

Unit 4

What is a word sense, a seme, a sense core, and a sense periphery? (Что такое словозначение, сема, основа словозначения и уточняющая часть словозначения?)

Word sense (словозначение, значение слова)

A word sense is one of the things or ideas that a word represents. Words usually have more than one sense. Some high-frequency words like to get may have over two dozen senses.

Seme (сема)

A seme is a minimal distinctive unit of meaning. Another term for seme is semantime (сементема).

A word sense is a combination of several semes. The meaning of man, for example can be represented by the following components: human + adult + male, and woman as human + adult + female. To die can be represented as: to become + not + alive, where to become, not and alive are elements of meaning which can be combined in various ways with other such elements to build meanings of other words. All these ele­ments of meaning are semes (basic units of meaning).

Sense core (основа словозначения)

Clusters of semes constitute conventionally identifiable parts of a word sense. One can often identify a dominant cluster of semes, or a sense core, in a word sense. For example, the dominant cluster of semes in to snigger, to snicker, and to chuckle is to laugh.

Sense periphery (уточняющие элементы словозначения) is the speci­fying or secondary cluster of semes in a word sense. The specifying clusters of semes in to snigger and to snicker are quietly, often unkindly, and at something which is not supposed to be funny. In the case of to chuckle, the specifying, or secondary, cluster of semes is quietly.

To achieve a high level of equivalence in translation, it is important to translate not only the sense core of a word sense but also its sense periphery.

Unit 5

What is the semantic structure of a word? (Что такое семантическая структура, или семантичекая емкость, слова?)

The concept "structure" can be defined as "the arrangement of and rela­tions between the parts of something complex." (COD) (Структура -это взаиморасположение и связь составных частей чего-либо сложного.) In other words, it is a set of interconnected parts of any complex thing. A word is a complex entity usually consisting of two or more interconnected word senses (значения слова; словозначения). These interconnected senses form the semantic structure of a word (семантическая структура слова).

The word "semantic" is derived from the word "semantics" (семантика) which has two senses: "1) the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning; and 2) the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or text." (COD) The two senses of the word "semantics" constitute its semantic structure.

The semantic structures, or semantic capacities (семантическая емкость), of words in different languages hardly ever coincide. They are usually different, often considerably. A comparison of the semantic structures of even such seemingly simple and transparent words in English and Russian as "table" and "стол" can serve as an illustra­tion (consult table 1 below).

The English noun "table" has 5 distinct word senses while the Russian noun "стол" has 6 distinct word senses. Only 3 Russian senses have their English counterparts, or vice versa. This means that the semantic structure of the English noun "table" includes 2 senses that are absent from the semantic structure of the Russian noun "стол" while the se­mantic structure of the Russian noun "стол" includes 3 senses that are absent from the semantic structure of the English noun "table." These missing senses are part of the semantic structures of other English and Russian words, i.e. their translation approximations (they are in bold type in the table above) have to be looked for within the semantic structures of other nouns. Additionally, the English word "table" can be used as a verb, and has two almost opposite senses in British and American English. One of the important parameters of a word-sense the translator should al­ways be aware of is its frequency of occurrence in speech or writing. The translator should strive to use translation synonyms whose frequencies of occurrence in particular types of discourse are more or less identical.

TABLE (noun)	СТОЛ (имя существительное)
1. a piece of furniture with a flat top supported by legs: a kitchen table.	1. предмет мебели в виде широкой горизонтальной пластины на опорах, ножках: кухонный стол
	2. питание, пища: комната со столом board, fare- room and board; diet; cooking, cuisine; meal; "шведский стол1' — (разнообразные закуски, сервированные а-ля фуршет)-smorgasbord
	3. отделение в учреждении или учреждение, ведающее каким-нибудь специальным кругом дел: справочный стол; стол находок. office, bureau; department, section; inquiry/information desk/ bureau; the lost-and-found (office)
2. a list of numbers, facts or information arranged in rows across and down the page: a table of contents таблица; оглавление
3. a list that young children learn, in which all the numbers between 1 and 12 are multiplied by each other: the three/four, etc. times table; the multiplication table таблица умножения
4. round-table - a discussion or meeting in which everyone can talk about things in an equal way	4. круглый стол - собрание, совещание, участники которого обсуждают специальные вопросы в форме непосредственной беседы, обмена мнениями
5. the group of people sitting around a table: His stories kept the whole table amused.	5. сидящие за столом: Своими рассказами он развлекал всех сидящих за столом (Он был душой стола)
	6.ист.Престол (hist. the throne)
TO TABLE (verb)
BrE to table a proposal/ question/demand, etc. to suggest a proposal, etc. for other

Monolingual etymological dictionaries trace the origins and the develop­ments of word-senses. They present word-senses in chronological order. A good example of an etymological dictionary is The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (1993) - NewSOED.

The difficulty for the translator, whose native language is not English, is that the oldest word-senses listed in an etymological dictionary are not necessarily the most frequently used ones. The same can be said about the most recent word-senses. A non-native user of English has no way of know­ing how frequently used this or that word-sense is in a particular type of discourse. Even a native speaker of English would have a fairly subjective view on this matter.

The creators of The Concise Oxford Dictionary (10^lh edition, 1999) have adopted a different approach. Within each semantic structure of a word, the first word-sense given is the primary, central, or the most typical word-sense of the word in modern standard English. This central sense is not necessarily the oldest sense, nor is it always the most frequently used one. This is because figurative and extended senses are sometimes the most frequently used ones. In other words, pride of place is given to the word-sense which is accepted by native English speakers as the most established, literal and central.

The difficulty for the Russian translator using the COD is that he or she also has little way of knowing how frequently used this or that word-sense is in a particular type of discourse.

The frequency factor is taken into account in the monolingual Longman dictionaries, for example, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary En­glish (1995), based on extensive, multi-million-word computerized cor­pora of the English language. These dictionaries are reliable reference sources as far as the frequency factor is concerned.

Bilingual (Russian-English or English-Russian dictionaries, for example) do not usually address the issue of frequency of occurrence of word-senses in speech or writing at all. The only exception seems to be the latest edition of Mueller's English-Russian dictionary, in which an unconvincing attempt is made to list the word-senses of words in order of their frequency of occurrence. Comparisons of Mueller's frequency data and that of, for ex­ample, Longman dictionaries raise significant questions.

To give a practical illustration of the concept of frequency in translation, it would be sufficient to look at just one example. How does one translate the Russian slang term лох into American English? Is it a hayseed, redneck, country bumpkin, rube, or sucker? (And the list could be prolonged). The English translation synonym of лох would have to enjoy the same fre­quency of use as a slang item in American English as the Russian slang term лох in Russian in order to satisfy the criterion of frequency correspondence in translation.

Given the glaring absence of any computerized Russian language corpora, the only recipe for the translator working into and out of English and Rus­sian is to gain a perfect command of the Russian and English languages and a deep knowledge of their respective cultures.

Unit 6

Descriptive translations of word senses (Описательный перевод словозначений /=значений слов/)

One of the layman's common misconceptions with regard to transla­tion is that one word or expression in one language must necessarily have a one-word or one-expression correspondence in another lan­guage. This is often not the case. One word may have to be translated by a phrase or even a sentence while an expression may have to be translated by a word. For example, the Russian sociocultural phenomemon "интеллигент" does not exist in the English-speaking culture and, as a result, the sociocultural concept "интеллигент" does not exist as a readily-available word sense in the English language. I define "интеллигент" as: "человек, отличающийся 1) высокой образованностью, 2) порядочностью, 3) тонкостью восприятия окружающего мира, 4) способностью сочувствовать другим людям, 5) нежеланием причинять неудобства окружающим, 6) готовностью терпеть неудобства самому и даже идти на самопожертвование. 7) стремлением к самосовершенствованию."

It is obvious that the above 7 semantic complexes (семантические комплексы), or clusters of semes (сочетания сем), or macrosemes (макросемы) are not combined within the confines of one word in English. These macrosemes can be found within the semantic struc­tures of several English words and expressions: 1) well-educated, 2) a person of integrity, 3) having a subtle perception of the surrounding world, 4) empathetic, 5) taking extra care not to inconvenience others, 6) prepared to be inconvenienced himself/ herself and even to make sacrifices for others, and 7) striving for self-improvement.

It follows that the concept "интеллигент" can only be conveyed in English in a descriptive way. To cover the whole field one would have to produce a very lengthy descriptive translation (описательный перевод) incorporating all of the above characteristics: "a well-edu­cated person of integrity who has a subtle perception of the surround­ing world, is empathetic towards other people, takes extra care not to inconvenience others, while being prepared to be inconvenienced him­self/herself, is prepared to make sacrifices for the sake of other people, and is constantly seeking self-improvement." For obvious reasons, such a translation can rarely, if ever, be used. The working translations most often used are: "a cultured person," "a refined intellectual," "a sensi­tive man with a refined, cultured mind,'" "a member of the intelligen­tsia," "an intellectual," "an erudite person," "a highbrow" (informal), "an egghead" (informal), etc. Though not entirely adequate, they can fit most contexts. In some cases, however, a lengthy descriptive trans­lation is the only acceptable option.

Unit 7

Denotative and connotative meaning (денотативное / = предметно-логическое/ и коннотативное значение)

A word sense usually includes denotative (денотативный / предметно-логический/) and connotative (коннотативный) elements of meaning. To denote means to serve as linguistic expression for a notion / idea or as a name for an actually existing object referred to by the word sense. What is denoted is often called the referent (референт). The denotative meaning of a word sense consists of its basic sense core and sense periphery as defined in dictionaries. In simpler terms, the denotative meaning of a word sense is its basic, or literal, dictionary definition. The alternative terms for "denotative meaning" are "referential," ''prepositional," or "extensional" meaning. For example, the sense core of "to scarf (slang - to eat or drink voraciously; devour /AHD/; AmE slang to eat something very quickly and noisily; BrE informal "to scoff' - to eat something very quickly: Who scoffed all the cake? /LDCE/) is "to eat" and its sense periphery is "voraciously" as defined by the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and "very quickly and noisily" as defined by the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Together, the sense core and the sense periphery constitute the denotative meaning of the word sense "to scarf." The closest Russian correspondence is "жрать" - (просторечье) "жадно есть" (ТСРУ); (разговорно-сниженное) "есть жадно и много" (БТС).

Connotative meaning (коннотативное значение), also called expres­sive meaning, is what is suggested by or associated with a particular word sense. To connote means to suggest or imply in addition to the denotative meaning. For translation purposes, it is useful to look at connotative mean­ing as consisting of the emotional, intensive (= having the property of in­tensifying; giving force or emphasis), evaluative, stylistic, and dialectal components. The connotative components, or connotations {коннотация), of a word sense have the capacity to evoke or directly express: 1) emotion (эмоциональное состояние, степень эмоциональности, эмоциональность), e.g. тот as compared to mother is more emotional, i.e. it expresses greater closeness, love, tenderness, etc.; to scarf as. com­pared to to eat is also more emotional because it may evoke feelings of disgust, etc.; 2) intensity (экспрессивность, степень экспрессивности), e.g. to abhor as compared to hate or dislike expresses a more intense, or poignant, feeling; to scarf as compared to to eat also implies a process which is more vigorous or intense; 3) evaluation (оценка), e.g. cronies as compared to friends may have a pejorative shade of meaning in certain contexts; to scarf as compared to to eat may imply censure, or an attitude of strong disapproval of somebody's eating habits; 4) a stylistic colouring (стилистическая окраска, стиль), e.g. to slay as compared to kill is felt to be distinctly formal, bookish, or even poetic while to scarf as com­pared to to eat (which is neutral) belongs in the realm of slang; and 5) a dialectal reference (диалектальная принадлежность, диалект): a lift is British English while an elevator is American English; similarly, to scarf is distinctly felt by native British English speakers to belong to the Ameri­can variety of the English language; in British English the closest corre­spondence is to scoff. In everyday usage, all these meanings often overlap and are often difficult to disentangle. Thus the forcefulness and emotionality of a word sense are often difficult to separate and are, as a result, referred to as the emotive charge (эмоционально-экспрессивный заряд, экспрессивность) of a word sense. Some examples; to lambaste some­body - to attack or criticise somebody very strongly (He was lambasted in the press.), to slog (away) at something - to work hard at something with­out stopping, especially when the work is boring or difficult (I've been slogging away at this thesis for days now and still haven 't finished it.), etc.

It is important to understand the difference between emotive charge and individual emotive implications (субъективные эмоциональные ассоциации). Emotive charge is an objective semantic feature of conno­tation, i.e. it is perceived by members of the same speaking community more or less in the same way. Individual emotive implications are associa­tions and ideas that a word may acquire in the mind of a particular person due to "heir subjective experience. The word prison, for example, would have different emotive implications for the architect who designed it, the warden working in it, and somebody who used to be a prisoner there.

The majority of word senses have both types of meaning. However, there are some notable exceptions. Words which are not "full" lexical items, i. e. gram­matical operators like the, and, can, etc., possess little denotative meaning and, certainly, viewed as individual items, no connotative meaning either. They are earners of grammatical meaning. Specialist terms, like a byte, the annual percentage rate, etc., for example, do not normally have any conno­tative meaning either. On the other hand, interjections like wow!, ouch!, damn!, etc. alongside sound-imitating words such as bang, quack, tick-tock, etc.. for all intents and purposes, possess mostly connotative meaning. A word sense, alongside its full denotative meaning, may have a connota­tive meaning comprising all the five above-mentioned components or dif ferent permutations of fewer than the five components.

In dictionaries, some connotative aspects of a word sense may be marked by special symbols or notations. Very often, important connotations of a word sense go unmarked and without any comments.

Sloppy translators and some journalists with a vague idea of what transla­tion is often do not bother with or distort the connotative meaning of the source text thus robbing the reader of the tine expressive impact of the original. The ultimate challenge for the translator is to try to preserve in the target text not only the denotative but also as much of the connotative con­tent of the original as possible.

Summary

The denotative meaning of a word sense is its direct, explicit, literal, or dictionary, meaning. The connotative meaning of a word sense is the idea or associations it suggests to all members of a speaking community in ad­dition to its denotative meaning. The denotative meaning comprises a sense core (a dominant cluster of semes) and a sense periphery (a supporting or specifying cluster of semes). The connotative meaning comprises the emotive charge (forcefulness + emotionality), an evaluative component (on a scale from good to bad, pleasant unpleasant, etc.), a stylistic reference (formal, neutral, informal, slang, etc.), and a dialectal reference (British English, American English, etc.). The translator must seek to convey both denotative and connotative meaning.

UNIT 8

The Concept of Functional Style (Register)

As was mentioned in the previous unit, the connotative meaning has as its component a stylistic coloring (стилистическую окраску) or a register reference (стилистическую соотнесенность). Stylistically, word senses can be referred to the formal, neutral and informal layers (strata) of the word-stock of a language. The greater part of the high-frequency English word stock are words of general reference, or neutral words (нейтральная лексика): to get, to have, a house, etc. Against the background of neutral words we can distinguish two major subgroups - in­formal vocabulary (разговорная лексика) and formal vocabulary, or bookish words (книжная лексика).

The formal vocabulary consists of three main strata:

1) literary words and expressions (литературная лексика), or words sed in quality fiction, e.g. salubrious, alacrity; these also include poetic words (поэтическая лексика), archaisms (архаизмы), e.g. ere, albeit, and foreign borrowings (иностранные заимствования), e.g. bon mot, faux pas;

2) specialist / technical terms (специальные термины), or scientific and scholarly words used in various specialist fields: telecommunica­tions, genetic engineering, cross-cultural, etc.; and

3) the vocabulary of official documents. The following sentence might serve as a typical example of an official document style: All matters, whether sounding in contract or tort, relating to all the validity, con­struction interpretation, or enforcement of this agreement, shall, unless governed by federal law, be determined by the law of the state in which your primary account was opened, whether you are now or later become a resident of a different state. (The Bank of America Check Card Bro­chure, p.4)

The formal vocabulary may also include literary and scientific ad hoc (created for the present occasion) words (окказиональная лексика, "лексика для данного случая", "одноразовая" лексика):

"chadology," etc.; and literary and scientific neologisms (неологизмы, новые слова): dimpled chads, "pregnant" chads, stem cells, etc., which, with time, may or may not become a permanent part of formal vo­cabulary.

The informal vocabulary (разговорная лексика) may be subdivided into:

1) general colloquial vocabulary (общеразговорная лексика), e.g. mum, dad, row (quarrel);

2) general slang (общеязыковой слэнг), e.g. to stiff somebody, sucker, hassle; and

3) general vulgar slang or vulgarisms (вульгаризмы), e.g. fuck-up, shit- faced.

The informal vocabulary of a language also includes what may be termed as specialist slang, от professional jargon (профессиональный жаргон), e.g. to circle the drain (used by American paramedics with reference to somebody whose condition is deteriorating rapidly and who needs urgent medical assistance), slam-dunk (basketball), dick-motor (=an electric concrete tamper used by construction workers), and argot (арго) e.g. mickey firm, slammer.

The informal vocabulary is fertile ground for colloquial аnd slang nonce words, or ad hoc words (окказиональная лексика, "лексика для данного случая", "одноразовая" лексика): money-schmoney, etc. and co lloquial and slang neologisms (неологизмы, новые слова): Go get bent! (taboo), etc. which, with time, may or may not become a perma­nent part of general colloquial vocabulary or general slang.

A simplified stylistic stratification of word senses is: scientific, literary, neutral, colloquial, general slang and general vulgar slang.

As a general rule, word senses belonging to a particular stylistic layer or stratum in the source language must be translated by word senses from the corresponding stylistic layer or stratum in the target language. In other words, the registers of the original and the translation must be as close as possible.

Unit 9

The concept of dialect (диалект)

An important component of the connotative meaning of a word sense is its dialect variation. A dialect is a variety of language which has currency within a specific community or group of speakers. Dialects may be classified on the geographical, temporal (=related to or limited by time) and social bases. We can thus distinguish 1) geographical / regional dialects (e.g. the Scottish dialect: aye, wee, bairn, etc., or Ameri­can as opposed to British English: compare, for example, subway and elevator with tube and lift; 2) temporal dialects (words used by mem­bers of different age groups within a community, e. g. cool, wicked, bad, etc., in youth slang, or words used at different periods in the his­tory of a language: compare verily and really or e 'er and before); and 3) social dialects (words used by members of different social classes: compare missus, wife and trouble-and-strife in British English or brother, sir and buddy as forms of address in American English. If a native English speaker were to analyze to snigger, to snicker and to chuckle using the above criteria, he or she would most likely conclude that to chuckle is not dialectally marked, whereas to snigger was originally British and not normally used in American English, where to snicker was used as its close correspondence. However, owing to the interaction of the two main varieties of English, these days both to snicker and to snigger are used more or less interchangeably on both sides of the Atlantic. In contrast to dialect, idiolect (идиолект) is speech habits peculiar to a particular person.

Some more examples of dialectal words Implications for the translator

Geographical / regional dialects (Географические / региональные диалекты)

General rules:

A translation is always made with the recipient of the translation in mind. That is to say,

1) if a text is being translated for an American audience, then it has to be translated into the American variety of English. If it is being translated for a British audience, then the translation has to be in British English.

2) If a text is a translation from English into Russian, no geographic al or regional dialectal considerations apply as Russian is dialectally uniform.

3) Regional British and American dialects are culture-specific, i. e. they have no approximations in Russian, and are, therefore, expressed by neutral terms in Russian (consult table 2 below)

Table 2

Geographical/regional Dialectal vocabulary	Temporal dialectal vocabulary	Social dialectal vocabulary (sociolect)
Pal (a form of address) – Scot.Eng. Mate (a form of address) –Southern Eng. Buddy Am.Eng. Subway – Am.Eng. Tube – Br.Eng. Filofax– Br.Eng. Planner– Am.Eng. Some vocabulary typical of the American South: To tump – to tip smth.over and dump it out, e.g. The dogs tumped over the garbage again. To mash – to press (as in a button), e.g. He mashed the button repeatedly on the remote, but he still couldn’t find the Jery Springer show. Y’all – you (plural), e.g. I don’t have room for y’all in my pick-up truck. Fixing to – about to, preparing to, e.g. I’ m fix-ing to go fishing, but first I need to buy a six pack and some bait.	Archaic vocabulary: E’er– before Thee, thou – you Hest – command To bewray – to disclose or betray Delightsome – delightful Youth slang: Cool, wicked, bad, sweet, tight –very good, very nice; Dawg(=dog) – close pal, friend, buddy; Phat (from pretty, hot and tempting) – same as sweetand tight above; Fly –very nice, looks really good, e.g. That shirt is a fly. Youth slang in the USA includes a lot of vocabulary from Afro-American English and the Rap Culture.	In Britain members of lower socio-economic classes watch the telly,whereas the members of higher socio-economic classes watch television or TV. Generally, people in Britain go to thetoilet,but if you are a member of the middle or higher classes, you would more likely to go the loo.Lower socio-economic groups might go to the lavatory or even the bog. Some examples of sociolect in American English: To continue the lavatory theme above, members of the middle or higher classes in the USA use the rest room or facilities, whereas members of the lower social classes may refer to these as the can. Afro-American English: Crib –house, apartment; Boo– girlfriend, boyfriend; They’s was – they were;

Temporal dialects (Исторические или временные диалекты).General rules:

1) An old-fashioned item in a source text has to be translated by its closest approximation in the target text.

2) A term (=a word or group of words having a particular meaning -AHD) characteristic of a certain age group, i. e. young people or old people, has to be translated by its closest approximation in the lexicon of the same group in the target language society. If such an approximation is impossible to find, then the temporally marked item is translated by a neutral term.

Social dialects (sociolects) (Социальные диалекты / социолекты) General rules:

Members of different social groups may have their own lexical (vo­cabulary) preferences. If an approximation to a source text term exists in the target language, i. e. members of a distinct social group in the target language society, similarly to the members of the corresponding social group in the source language society, use a particular lexical item in contrast to the rest of the language community, then this target language approximation has to be used as the translation of the source text term. If no such approximation is to be found, then the sociolectal item is translated by a neutral term.

It follows from the above that while the denotative meaning of dialectal vocabulary in the source text can always be conveyed in the target text, its connotations are often impossible to translate.

Unit 10

The Translator's False Friends (Ложные друзья переводчика)

Some words in different languages look and/or sound similar or practically the same in their transliterated form. However, their semantic structures and individual word senses don't often coincide. As a result, literal translations of such words are misleading, that is to say, they distort the original message. These words are called "the translator's false friends" (from the French "les faux amis du traducteur"), mis­leading international vocabulary, misleading words of foreign origin, or misleading cross-cultural cognates* (интернациональная лексика с различающейся семантикой). These misleading words usually derive from Latin or Greek but, having been borrowed by English or Russian, have led a life of their own, often resulting in their preserving but a tenuous link to their origins and having widely differing semantical structures and word senses. For example, "profane" does not mean "профан". "Profane" means I) "showing disrespect for God or for holy things, using rude words, or religious words wrongly: a profane action /uttering profane curses, or 2) formal not religious, ordinary or holy but dealing with human life: sacred and profane art" (LDCE). The first meaning corresponds to the Russian "богохульный, нечестивый" and the second meaning - to the Russian "светский, мирской". The Russian word "профан" means "человек, совершенно не сведущий в какой-нибудь области (В музыке он полный профан " - ТСРЯ) and corresponds to the English "an ignoramus" or "know-nothing." As can be seen, the semantic structure of the Russian word "профан" consists of only one word sense, which is absent from the semantic structure of the English word "profane." Conversely, the se­mantic structure of the English word "profane" consists of two word senses whose correspondences have nothing to do with the Russian word "профан". Another example. "A fan", in the sense "a machine or a thing that you wave with your hand which makes the air cooler: a ceiling fan" (LDCE), is not "фен" in Russian. It is either "вентилятор" or "веер". And "фен" in Russian is not " a fan" in English. It is "a hair-dryer." The list of examples could be very long indeed. The translator must always be on his or her guard against seemingly identical cognates in two languages. When translating from Russian

into English, the technique for dealing with them is as follows:

1) Look up the Russian word in a Russian-Russian dictionary (for example, Толковый словарь русского языка С.И.Ожегова и Н.Ю.Шведовой OR Большой толковый словарь русского языка под редакцией С.А.Кузнецова.

2) In case of difficulties, work through the Russian word senses using a Russian-English dictionary (for example, Большой русско-английский словарь под редакцией Д.Ермоловича OR The New Oxford Russian Dictionary OR The Harper Collins Russian Dictionary.

3) Look up the seeming English correspondence in an English-English dictionary (for example, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language OR The Concise Oxford Dictionary.

4) In case of difficulties, work through the word senses using an English-Russian dictionary (for example. Новый большой англо-русский словарь в 3-х томах Ю.Д. Апресяна и Э.М. Медниковой OR Новый англо-русский словарь В.К. Мюллера.

5) If no decision has been made up to now, use a good Russian-English dictionary to make the final choice of a translation

6) When translating from English into Russian, the procedure of using the dictionaries is reversed.

Unit 11