Глава 10. Задание 2. Переведите предложения, содержащие инфинитив и/или инфинитивные обороты на русский язык

Задание 2. Переведите предложения, содержащие инфинитив и/или инфинитивные обороты на русский язык.

1. Advancement in electronic techniques appears to be endless.

2. All forms of radiant energy have been found to travel through space with the same speed.

3. Temperatures on the surface of Mars, which seems to be the most comfortable place for life to exist beyond our Earth within the solar system, are also of some interest.

4. Most physicists believed in the latter half of the nineteenth century cathode rays to be charged particles.

5. Satellites in Earth orbits of about 600 miles or greater can normally be expected to remain in orbit for thousands of years.

6. When sound waves are directed on the diaphragm they cause it to move backwards and forwards.

7. The choice of radioisotope to be used as the source is determined by the thickness of the product to be measured.

8. The penetrating power of this new radiation was an obvious point to investigate.

9. Fourier's theory states that any waveform that repeats at regular time intervals can be shown mathematically to be equivalent to the sum of a series of sine waves of different amplitudes and frequencies.

10. From classical electrodynamics we know that when a charge is accelerated it radiates. (This is the process that causes radio and television antennae to radiate).

11. In the so-called "gas counters" the radiation to be detected causes ionization in the gas, and the free charge is then collected and measured.

12. For a sound to be heard by the human ear it should be between the frequencies of approximately 20 cycles and 15,000 cycles.

13. Newton stated that the force which makes objects fall towards the Earth is only a special case of a general attraction between any two masses.

14. Interference by cosmic ray particles makes it necessary for neutrino detection to be carried out deep underground where other particles cannot penetrate.

15. In the course of his theoretical investigations Maxwell discovered the pressure of light. He derived this effect from the electromagnetic theory, but as a matter of fact it can be shown to follow from any wave theory.

16. Even though the demand for coal and lignite continues to rise there does not appear to be any danger of running out of these fuels for several hundred years at least.

17. This property of matter to resist any change in its motion is called inertia.

18. Calculations concerning the interior properties of the Sun show it to contain mostly hydrogen and helium.

19. The unstable isotopes that are almost stable have been found to occur naturally and these were known as early as the turn of the century.

20. In the electromagnetic theory of radiation the atom is supposed to be similar to the antenna of a radio transmitter, although much smaller and radiating a much higher frequency.

21. To determine the magnitude of anything, it is necessary to make a measurement.

22. For the sound to arise it is necessary to have a sound source and a medium to travel through.

23. If plane waves fall perpendicularly on a surface they may be shown to exert a pressure on it of a magnitude equal to the density of energy in the waves. This result is exceedingly difficult to observe, as the pressure is very small in practical cases.

24. Considerable progress has been made with the difficult task of processing the information quickly enough for it to be of use for weather forecasting.

25. On the basis of new theoretical investigations it was demonstrated that it is hardly possible for the primary cosmic radiation to be of "near-solar" or metagalactic origin.

26. The hydrogen atom was the object of the first theoretical attack, because as the lightest of all atoms it was assumed to have the simplest structure.

27. In order for life to arise on a planet, the mass of the planet must lie between certain limits.

28. Using data of this kind it was found that the theory does not seem to give results which are in good agreement with observation.

29. The discovery of radium was the first to start the new era of radioactive elements.

30. Both instruments and human explorers are sure to find many surprises in the solar system.

Задание 3. Переведите предложения на русский язык. Определите грамматическую функцию инфинитива и/или инфинитивного оборота.

1. To initiate a dialogue with citizens on how to create sustainable local development is seen as an important opportunity to improve local democracy.

2. It was not until the 70-s that American politicians started to recognize the important economic and social benefits to be derived from clean and healthy waterfronts.

3. To make it possible for local authorities to take full responsibilities for their own land area, Parliament has passed laws guaranteeing decentralization of planning powers to the local level, far-reaching participation of the public in land-use, planning and the protection of areas of national interests.

4. Innovations created jointly by the headquarters and a number of national organizations have proven to be an important instrument for creating multinational flexibility by allowing the development of relatively standardized products that were also able to meet the diverse demands of customers at acceptable levels of costs.

5. A group of German researches has devised a way to cut dramatically the emissions of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxeds from diesel engines. Their experimental system pumps an electric current through the exhaust gases to render the pollutants harmless.

6. Galileo is said to have dropped two spheres of different weights from the top of the leaning tower of Pisa to demonstrate that the spheres would strike the ground together. But, in fact, he deduced this first using a thought experiment.

7. So it seems that galaxies weigh more than the sum of their visible parts. To solve the problem of this ‘missing mass’, scientists have hypothesized the existence of all sorts of mysterious ‘dark matter’.

8. You are supposed to generate hypotheses and then test them against empirical observations (which is the basic scientific technique). Instead, some scientists test the validity of observations against the hypothesis.

9. The enlarged areas of brain are known to be involved in dealing with language. So a clear inference can be made. Too many brain cells in the right hemisphere, along with too much cross-talk between the hemispheres, is confusing the part of the left hemisphere that deals with language.

10. Some mathematicians are worried by a recent trend that permits ‘theoretical’ mathematicians to intuit ideas and not worry too much about their rigorous proof.

11. The pace has quickened, but the need to be first on the grounds that no one remembers the second person to make a discovery, has not relaxed.

12. Floppy disks have always been cheap to make and relatively easy to copy.

13. The bank spent millions of dollars on new computer hardware, only to find subsequently that only one software program ran on it.

14. Attempts to program a computer to integrate gesture with speech began back in the 1970s.

15. IBM has invested billions in software development but has yet to make headway in high-growth markets for personal computers, where Microsoft dominates.

16. For the machine to be programmed in a standard engineering language like Fortran, the company had to write a piece of software called a Fortran compiler to translate the standard commands of Fortran into the binary ‘machine code’ that actually controls the machine’s circuitry.

17. New computer viruses and logic bombs – programs designed to cause trouble at a particular time or date – are discovered every week, and have often been designed to avoid, or even infect, the antivirus software of most computer owners.

18. Multimedia enthusiasts dream of a multi-level, interactive multimedia experience, a combination of education and play analogous to a good science museum, with displays of information alongside buttons to press and levers to pull.

19. Researchers around the world are developing virtual reality systems that will let designers walk around their products and computer-generated dummies try them out for comfort.

20. To improve on "expert systems" that know everything about a highly specialised field, some scientists are trying to build an ‘amateur system’, called Cyc, with the commonsense knowledge that one would expect of a sensible child.

21. There are various ways to make atoms tangible. For chemists, the easiest thing is to tell a computer the positions of all the atoms that make a molecule. The computer can then generate a three-dimensional likeness of the molecule.

22. Pauling developed a method for predicting the way in which atoms might arrange themselves to give a crystal structure.

23. In all, Mendeleyev predicted 10 new elements, of which all but two turned out to exist.

24. Fusion is hard to get started. While fissile nuclei are eager to fall apart, those which might fuse are loath to get close enough together to do so.

25. To bring two light nuclei close enough to fuse means overcoming their natural repulsion. They have to be moving fast, which means they have to be hot – hence the term ‘thermonuclear’ to describe fusion reactors and their untamed relations – hydrogen bombs.

26. Before the images of Jupiter’s four large satellites arrived on Earth, most people expected these moons to be dead places, looking like our own Moon with innumerable craters.

27. Scientific knowledge is value-free. Which means that just because you know how to split the atom, it doesn't necessarily follow that you must kill people with an atom bomb.

28. Particle physicists, who have recently jointed the ranks of modern cosmologists, seem to think all the really exciting science occurred before the Universe was between 10 and 32 seconds old.

29. He seems to accept the Bruntland "sustainable growth" idea, with its perception of the environment as a reservoir to fuel "growth" and ‘development’, and environmental protection as important mainly to keep that reservoir full.

30. A new drug that can halve the risk of rejection in the early months after a kidney transplant is about to be licensed in Britain.

Задание 4. Переведите предложения, содержащие неличные формы глагола, на русский язык.

1. Science is always on the move. Its preference is to find a question that nobody knew needed answering, answer it and move on, leaving technologists to turn the answer into a machine, a drug or a computer program.

2. Decisions taken in the 1950s led to the bulk of science funding going into medicine, physical sciences such as nuclear power, and space research.

3. Science requires the formulation of laws based upon experimental observations made under different conditions using deductive logic. There is no archaeological law comparable with Newton’s laws of motion and repeated definitions are often not possible. Under this definition, archaeology is not a science.

4. Hardware follows the law postulated by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, which states that the computing power available for a given price doubles every year.

5. For some years it has been common practice for everyone working on an experiment to be named on all the papers published. As a result, the vast majority of authors on a given paper do not write a single word of it, make no direct contribution to the published results and most likely do not even read it until after submission.

6. An ink pen running at regular intervals over a paper chart was the hint that led Jocelyn Bell Burnell to make an astonishing discovery about the Universe. At the time, she was a 24-year-old PhD student at Cambridge, doing a routine monitoring job. But she rapidly acquired an international reputation for her discovery of the pulsar, a new type of star.

7. Hodgkin pioneered the use of computers to handle the complex mathematics involved in determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography.

8. A report says that the 13 million cars scrapped annually in Europe, including 1.3 million in Britain, are creating a mountain of polluting waste plastics, rubber, oil and glass.

9. Global warming observed over the past century has focused attention on manmade greenhouse gases presumed to be the likely cause. Some researchers, however, have expressed doubt, wondering whether the Sun – our ultimate source of energy – might actually be variable (as starts similar to the Sun are found to be), and thus account for the bulk of the observed climate change. The expressed hope is that future warming due to further greenhouse-gas emissions might therefore not be significant.

10. Growing environmental problems forced them to find a new solution which didn’t demand an expensive technique.

11. Cutting fiscal subsidies and avoiding large central bank losses due to subsidized credits have been important elements of macroeconomic adjustment.

12. Spending analysis, including detailed studies of incidence of social benefits, are needed to show where adjustments will be less painful.

13. Saving the ozone layer from attack by chemicals, including chlorofluorocarbons, has become the first big test of environmental diplomacy.

14. The research group sees a growing gulf between individuals who understand information technology and those who are frightened by computers or can’t afford to buy them. It also believes that the technology will widen the gap between rich and poor, with rich countries educating people to be IT managers, and poor countries training people to be badly paid keyboard operators.

15. Anybody equipped with a computer, modem, and telephone line can send and receive unlimited information around the world almost for free.

16. The latest generation of supercomputers replaces the single central processor with hundreds or thousands of separate processors, all working together. This approach, called ‘massively parallel processing’ turns the computer into a factory, with thousands of parallel assembly lines churning out calculations and swapping results back and forth.

17. The idea of downloading a human lifetime’s experience into a machine appeals to computer programmers. In some areas, such as assisting medical diagnosis, expert systems using conventional logic have been successfully designed. But expertise itself is difficult stuff. Often people cannot quantify how they go about the things. However, they can, if pushed, usually describe it.

18. MacClean and her colleagues published an analysis of language impairment running in a family in London. Most affected members of the family have average non-verbal IQs, but speak slowly, frequently missing pronouns and suffixes involved in forming plurals and the past tense. The pattern of inheritance suggests a trait controlled by a single dominant gene.

19. Recombinant DNA techniques can splice a gene from one plant or animal into another. Using these methods, researchers have already produced a range of genetically modified organisms. There are potatoes with extra genes from bacteria; when fried, the potatoes make crisper chips. There is wheat that is resistant to herbicides. There are tomatoes made frost resistant by including genes from cold-water fish.

20. The committee also criticized researchers for focusing almost exclusively on molecular studies of the organisms that cause disease while ignoring clinical and health aspects of infectious disease.

21. An outbreak of tuberculosis at a social club in Liverpool resulted in seven adults and one child becoming infected. Four hundred people had to be called in for tests.

22. In the past ten years, immunology has been one of the fastest growing and most exciting areas in biology.

23. At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a gas with two atoms bound together to form a molecule: H₂. But squeezing it and then cooling changes things. Like most gases hydrogen first liquefies and then solidifies.

24. Water must have circulated around the planet, evaporating from the oceans and falling as snow in the polar regions.

25. If a molten metal alloy can be cooled quickly enough, it can freeze into a solid before it has a chance to crystallize properly. Unlike normal metals or alloys, the resulting amorphous alloys have no crystalline structure on a scale of more than a few hundred atoms. They thus can have unique electronic and magnetic properties, but are hard to make because cooling has to be very rapid.

26. Atoms can be thought of as miniature solar systems, with a nucleus at the center and electrons orbiting at specific distances from it. Electrons, being negatively charged, usually orbit as close as possible to the positively charged nucleus.

27. The temperature at the centre rose above 2000 degrees C, breaking up the molecules of hydrogen and then ionizing both the hydrogen and helium atoms.

28. Tin has been found floating in the space between the stars. The element, which has atomic number 50, is by far the heaviest ever found in the interstellar medium.

29. The neutron was first identified by James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, in 1932. It was the first electrically neutral elementary particle to be identified: previously, only the positively charged proton and negatively charged electron were known.

30. The LEP is one of the most powerful particle accelerators in the world. Housed in a gigantic circular tunnel, it spans the boarder between Switzerland and France. Its powerful magnets keep high-energy beams of electrons and positrons flying around the ring before smashing them into one another. Physicists then pore over the debris of these collisions in search of fundamental building blocks of the Universe.

31. The time has come for physicists to take a step up from antiparticles to antiatoms. They are looking at ways of bringing the antimatter counterpart of electron, called positrons, and antiprotons close enough for long enough to form stable antihydrogen atoms.

32. Splitting the atoms all at once might not be so hard. The neutrons given off when the atoms came apart – a process called fission – could split more atoms in turn. In a lump of the right size and shape – a critical mass – every neutron produced would stand a good chance of hitting and splitting another nucleus. The chain reaction would lead, in the right circumstances, to a vast explosion.

33. Getting things hot enough while keeping them under control is hard.

34. Unlike existing line sensors, which rely on a ball breaking a laser beam, the new system is based on electromagnetism. Tennis balls impregnated with 5 grams of iron powder are detected by electrodes buried beneath the lines of the court.

35. The cornerstone of special theory of relativity is the notion that the speed of light in space is always the same wherever it is measured from, and however fast and in whatever direction the person measuring is moving. This leads to the conclusion that energy and mass are interchangeable and that no object can travel faster than light.

36. The equations that describe such curious phenomena as, for example, the way moving clocks run slower and moving objects get smaller, are, in essence, the familiar equations of Pythagoras’s theorem, extended to four dimensions.

37. It’s hard to remember the alarm in Washington which greeted the Soviet Union’s first sputnik in 1957, or the envy aroused by the manned flight of Yuri Gagarin four years later.

38. The many missions run on Soyuz and Mir are potentially the best source of data on the psychological effects of long-term space flight – vitally important when contemplating crewed space missions to Mars, which will involve a four- year round trip.

39. On March 1959, Pioneer 4 became the first US probe to escape from the Earth and make a flyby of the Moon before, as expected, running out of power.

40. Being able to compare the internal structure of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (the four inner planets) is crucial to our understanding of how the Solar System formed and the subsequent evolution of the planets.

41. Though the area photographed is very small, it is believed to be representative of a typical distribution of galaxies in space because, statistically, the universe looks the same in all directions.

42. Asking social science researchers to explain the four or five most important findings of a major research study is more likely to cause resentment than enthusiasm.

43. Ways of preventing the immune system from rejecting tissue transplants are being tested by American researchers. Their goal is to turn off the recipient’s immune response.

44. A recent study shows that remaining thin does not provide any protection against lung cancer.

45. People in alternative medicine are always claiming that orthodox intervene too much, instead of letting nature do its work.

46. Physicists and chemists still do not completely understand how molecules in these materials behave, but finding out would be a big step towards understanding the relation between their structure and dynamics. To explore solids and liquids at the atomic and molecular level, we need to look inside them.

47. The effect of increasing funding for particle physics is to starve other, perhaps more immediately useful area of physics. Solid-state physics has paid dearly for this.

48. As opposed to in non-transitional stabilizing economies, fiscal deficits in transitional economies must be seen in a medium-term perspective, with greater emphasis being placed on reducing government spending and improving its composition.

Задание 5. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя инфинитив или инфинитивный оборот

1. Для понимания сложного механизма речи требуются объединенные усилия физиологов, психологов, лингвистов.

1. Такой подход очень полезен для уточнения результатов и статистической ошибки.

2. Во время этих опытов все необходимые меры были приняты, чтобы обеспечить безопасность персонала.

3. Чтобы повысить точность данных, надо свести до минимума возможность случайной ошибки.

4. Чтобы проверить нашу гипотезу, мы предприняли серию опытов по вживлению электродов и результаты представили в двух таблицах.

5. Для того чтобы эти вещества прореагировали, температура должна быть довольно высокой.

6. Для того чтобы в данной системе наступило равновесие, энергия на входе должна равняться энергии на выходе.

7. Вопрос, который мы сейчас обсуждаем, слишком сложен, чтобы на него можно было так быстро найти ответ.

8. Результаты этих измерений выглядят слишком сомнительно, чтобы на них можно было полагаться.

9. Наши знания о многих космических объектах слишком неполны и предварительны, чтобы служить основой для окончательных выводов.

10. Эта теория является не только чисто физической, но и философской. Она слишком широка, чтобы ее можно было подогнать под какую-то узкую схему.

11. Схема этих опытов слишком сложна, чтобы можно было надеяться провести их без современного оборудования.

12. Процент примесей слишком велик, чтобы этот кристалл мог считаться хорошим полупроводником.

13. Подписи к таблицам и рисункам должны быть краткими и по существу дела.

14. Между этими данными имеется некоторое расхождение, которое еще ждет своего объяснения.

15. Отто Ган был первым, кто наблюдал деление атомных ядер в лабораторных условиях.

16. Академик Семенов был первым, кто разработал теорию цепных реакций.

17. Материалы различаются по своим электрическим свойствам: одни могут хорошо проводить электричество, другие едва ли можно назвать проводниками.

18. Атомное ядро заключает в себе огромную энергию, которую оно может высвобождать в реакциях ядерного распада.

19. Мы создаем новые полупроводниковые материалы, свойства которых должны отвечать строгим требованиям.

20. Свойства полупроводников могут меняться в зависимости от характера примесей.

21. Такие результаты нельзя получить на основе визуального наблюдения. Все изменения можно зарегистрировать только с помощью очень чувствительного прибора.

22. Любой опыт нужно повторять несколько раз, так как всегда есть опасность инструментальной ошибки.

23. Это вещество не следует держать на свету: оно разлагается.

24. Такую сложную проблему можно будет решать только после тщательного анализа космической среды и ее компонентов.

25. Сейчас существует хорошее согласие между экспериментальными данными и теорией, но в будущем они могут придти в конфликт.

26. Знание строения этих веществ, возможно даст ключ к пониманию механизма их синтеза.

27. Нам иногда приходится пользоваться методом проб и ошибок, поскольку мы работаем над совершенно новой проблемой.

28. Мы были вынуждены сделать этот вывод, так как в то время не было доказательства существования обратной связи.

29. Если препарат достаточно чист химически, его не обязательно подвергать предварительной обработке.

30. В дальнейшем может возникнуть путаница в терминологии, поэтому мы здесь даем определение каждого термина, с которым будем иметь дело.

31. Принципы, которые описаны в этой статье были разработаны для простого случая, но их можно применять и для сложных систем.

32. Этот вывод может показаться преждевременным, так как нам неясны некоторые детали расположения атомов в этой молекуле.

33. Планеты Солнечной системы, как полагают сейчас многие ученые, образовались в одно и то же время.

34. Теория относительности, как теперь принято считать, явилась поворотным пунктом в истории физической мысли.

35. Судя по открытиям последних десятилетий в области физики и биологии, существует, вероятно, определенная аналогия между строением макро- и микромира.

36. Ученые давно пытались выяснить, что заставляет планеты вращаться вокруг своей оси.

37. Нагревание предмета часто вызывает увеличение его размеров.

38. Атмосфера не позволяет некоторым видам частиц солнечного излучения достигать поверхности Земли.

39. Магнитное поле используется в данном случае для того, чтобы не дать возможности отдельным частицам покинуть зону взаимодействия.

Задание 6. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя герундий или герундиальный оборот

1. В этом методе нас привлекла простота получения экспериментальных образцов.

2. Лучшим способом проверки любой научной теории является эксперимент.

3. Мы признаем сложность проведения эксперимента для наблюдения за отдельными частицами, но в будущем нам, возможно, придется найти способы решения этой проблемы.

4. Процесс накопления новых фактов идет сейчас в науке чрезвычайно быстро.

5. Пока не существует надежного способа приготовления таких кристаллов без примесей.

6. Нагревание предмета часто вызывает увеличение его размеров.

7. Наша ошибка заключается в недооценке возможностей этого подхода к решению более сложных задач современной биологии.

8. Этот метод отличается от остальных аналогичных методик тем, что дает более точную величину поглощения.

9. Это предупреждение, возможно, удержит других исследователей от повторения той же ошибки.

10. Мы сейчас думаем о том, чтобы предпринять еще ряд экспедиций с целью собрать большее количество фактического материала.

11. Международные конференции способствуют обмену научной информацией по общим и конкретным проблемам исследовательской работы.

12. Во время опыта побочные явления устранялись добавлением смеси определенного химического состава.