Result clauses

When you want to indicate the result of an action or situation, you can use a result clause. Result clauses are introduced by conjunctions such as so, so... that, or such … that.

There are many other ways of talking about the result of an action or situation. In some situations you may prefer to use and as a result or with the result that.

• The lecture was boring and irrelevant, and as a result some of the students began to fall asleep.
• The lecture was boring and irrelevant, with the result that some of the students began to fall asleep.

As a result can also be used at the beginning of a new sentence.

• The lecture was boring and irrelevant. As a result, some of the students began to fall asleep.

The following words and phrases are used in the same way.

Therefore, Thus, In consequence, Consequently, For this/that reason

Causal relations can be expressed by ing-clauses of result.

• The government increased the duty on wine. As a result, there was a fall in demand.
• The government increased the duty on wine, resulting in a fall in demand.

· When we want to make two points, and emphasise that one of them contrasts with the other, there are a number of different words and expressions that we can use.

· Probably the most common and simplest word to use is the conjunction but. It comes between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

The team was beaten, but Paul scored three goals.

Although is also a conjunction, and can come either at the beginning of a sentence, or between the two clauses that you wish to contrast:

			Although it was raining, they went on a picnic.
			They went on a picnic although it was raining.

Though can be used in exactly the same way, and is more common in informal speech:

			Though it was raining, they went on a picnic.
			They went on a picnicthough it was raining.

If we use even though in this way, the word even stresses that what follows is surprising:

Even though he’s almost ninety, he’s entered the marathon.

Though can also be used as an adverb, to mean however (see below).

			Frogs, though, are amphibians and not reptiles.
			“Strange place, isn’t it?” “Yes. Very interesting, though.”

Even so also means however (see below), and comes at the beginning of the sentence:

They come from a very rich family. Even so, they’re really mean with their money.

However, nevertheless, mind you, still, yet, and in spite of this can all be used as adverbs to show that something you are saying contrasts with something else.

However and nevertheless emphasise the fact that the second thing that you are saying contrasts with the first. Nevertheless is more formal.

			The children had a lovely day. However, they arrived home very sunburnt.
			The government vowed to reduce inflation. Nevertheless, one year later, the rate has increased by 3 percent.

We use mind you and still to introduce whatever contrasts as an afterthought:

			He’s a horrible man. Mind you, many people like him.
			The weather was awful all week. Still, we had a nice rest.

Yet, still and in spite of this all emphasise that something is surprising, considering what has already been said:

			He’s been an invalid since he was a child and yet has had a brilliant career.
			United were four goals down at halftime, and were still able to win the game.
			He claims that he’s a vegetarian. In spite of this, he does enjoy a bit of ham every now and again.

In spite of can also be used as a preposition. In spite of + noun is very similar to although + clause (see above):

			He looks very fitin spite ofhis age (=although he’s very old)
			He went to the gym in spite of his broken leg (=although he had a broken leg)

In spite of can be followed by an –ing form.

In spite of not being able to swim, she survived for almost an hour in the sea.

We can also use despite in the same way as in spite of in more formal English: