| The pronoun is a part of speech which points out objects and their qualities without naming them.
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| Semantic classification
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| - personal: I, he, she, it, they; him, her, them
- possessive: my, his, her, its
- reflexive: myself, itself, ourselves
- emphatic: himself, herself, themselves
- reciprocal: each other, one another
- demonstrative: this, these, that, those, such, (the) same
- interrogative: who, what, which
| - relative: who, whose, which, that, as
- defining: each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, all, either, both, other, another
- indefinite: some, any, somebody, anybody, something/anything, someone/anyone
- negative: no, none, neither, nobody, no one, nothing
- quantitative: many, much, few, little
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| Personal
| We use object forms in such sentences: Who’s that? ~It’s me/us/them.
‘IT’: *in ‘cleft sentences’: It was Peter who drove us home.(not Paul) It was they/them who asked.
*when an infinitive is a subject of a sentence: It is easy to criticize. It is better to be easy.
*as a subject for impersonal verbs: it seems, it appears, it looks, it happens
Note! The coffee is too hot to drink it.
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| Possessive
| - possessive pronouns can replace possessive adjectives:
possessive adjectives+nouns (my, your,his, her, its, our, their; This is my room).
Possessive pronouns (yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs; This room is mine).
of mine= one of my:a friend of mine = one of my friends
- possessive adj. are used with clothes & parts of the body: He injured his back. BUT! If there is a preposition before a part of the body we put the article: I patted him on the back.
- possessive to ‘each other’: We wrote down each other’s telephone numbers.
- To add emphasis, own can be placed after my, your, his and one’s: her own idea, a room of one’s own. Note: I’m on my own = I’m alone
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| Reflexive
| - some verbs (to bathe, to dress, to wash, to change clothes) are normally used without reflexive pronouns:
I got up, washed, dressed and went to school. BUT!When the action is difficult (for children or disabled) reflexive pronouns are used: Oh, look! Nicky has just dressed himself!
- after a preposition of place we use me, you, him, her: In the mirror I saw a lorry behind me. (NOT behind myself)
- fixed phrases: to feel good/bad (about mood); to feel well/unwell (about health) we use without myself!
to enjoy oneself; to teach oneself; to find oneself;
Help yourself to something!Make yourself at home! to turn itself on /off
Note: He behaved badly. BUT Behave yourself!
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| Emphatic
| Patterns: I grew these vegetables myself. The house itself is small, but the garden is enormous.
I’m not myselftoday. You told me about it yourself!
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| Reciprocal
| A pattern: When we went on holiday, we sent a lot of postcards to each other / one another.
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| Demonstrative
| this/these
| that/those
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| - people or things near us: This is my pen.
- present/future situation: I’m going away this weekend.
- to introduce people or on the phone: This is Ann.
these days → nowadays, now; this evening → tonight
| - people or things not near us: I want those jeans from H&M.
- past situations: That was a holiday of a lifetime!
- to refer back to smth mentioned before: That’s what I meant!
on the phone: Who’s that?
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| Interrogative
| In formal English we use preposition + whom:
With whom did you go?
In spoken English we usually move the preposition to the end of the sentence, with whom changing to who:
Who did you go with?
| In formal English we use preposition + which/what:
To which address did you send it?
In spoken English we move the preposition to the end of the sentence:
Which address did you send it to?
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| which
| what
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| - when there’s a limited choice we ask which:
Which size do you want – small, medium or large?
| - when there is an unlimited choice we askwhat:
What is your shoe size?
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- before of & one we can use which, but notwhat: Which of the countries in Europe have you visited?
Which of you knows the answer? (NOT Who of you…)
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| what & how in questions about measurements
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| what
| how
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- what + age / depth / height / length / width
- whatis a general interrogative used for things:
What makes that noise?
- What… for = ‘why’: What did you do that for?
- What+be…like?
What was the exam like? ~It was very difficult.
- What does he/she/it look like?
What does she look like? ~She’s tall and glamorous.
- What is he? = ‘What is his profession?’
What is his father? ~He is a tailor.
NOTE! What is it called? (NOT How is it called?)
What was the trip like? →
| - How + old / deep / high / tall / long / wide
- to ask about manner
How did you get on in the exam? ~Quite well, I hope!
We ask questions with ‘how’ for:
- introductions:
How do you do? answered by How do you do?
- health: How are you? How have you been?
- personal reactions: How was the film?
- offers and suggestions: How about a drink? (= What about a drink?) How would you like to have lunch with us?
How was the trip?
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| Relative
| Subject
Object
Possessive
For persons
who, that
whom (very form al) / that (who / -)
whose
For things
which, that
which, that
whose / of which
(all / everybody/everyone/ no one + that)
| Examples
1. The man who robbed you has been arrested.
2. Everyone who/that knew him liked him.
3. The man whom I saw told me to come back OR
The man who/that I saw… OR The man I saw…
4. The man to whom I spoke was 30. (formal)
The man (that/who/whom) I spoke to was 30. (inf.)
5. The film is about a spy whose wife betrays him.
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| Defining
| All or every?
All =a number of people or things considered as a group
Every = a number of people or things considered individually
| Both =one and the other
Both+plural verbs: Bothdoors were open.
Both of + us/you/them: Both of us knew him.
Both … and … – êàê … òàê è …; è… è
He both acts and directs.
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| Each or every?
- each =a number of persons or things considered individually
Each man had a weapon = the speaker went to each man and checked that he had a weapon.
- every has the same meaning but there is less emphasis on individual.
Every man had a weapon = the speaker counted the men & the weapons & he had the same number of each.
- every is used with nouns in the meaning of total, complete (chance, hope, reason, sympathy, right, confidence)
You have every right to be here. – Òè ìàºø ïîâíå ïðàâî òóò áóòè..
- eachis used when we have the choice from two things only! There were tears streaming down each side of her face.
Each + of these/those, the of can’t be omitted; each of you = you each
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- everyone/everybody + singular verb: Everyone is ready (NOT All the people are ready)
- everything + singular verb: Everything has been wasted (NOT All the things have been wasted)
Note!The expressions all (the people), all (the) things are possible when followed by a noun, pronoun or a clause:
- all + noun: All the people in the room clapped. I got all the things you asked for.
- all + pronoun: All (both) of us went there. (= We all (both) went there.)
- all + (that): All that I want is to have a rest now.
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| We use whole most often with singular countable nouns; we use all most often with uncountable & plural nouns:
a whole concert – all the music; a whole plate – all the food
We use the whole of before the names of places: the whole of Europe.
Note! The whole night BUT all the night/day/time/life. Patterns: Tell me all about it. They left me all alone. That’s all.
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| Other(s) & Another
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| When other is used before a plural noun, it doesn’t have –s.
When other is used without a noun, it has –s in the plural.
Tell the other people. Tell the others.
| - we can use another to mean ‘one more’. But with uncountables & plurals, we generally use other to mean ‘more’: Have another potato. Have some more meat.
- another + few, another + a number with a plural noun.
Let’s wait another few minutes = ùå äåê³ëüêà õâèëèí
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| Negative
| Neither/Either
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- neither =not one and not the other; + an affirmative singular verb: I’ve read neither of these books.
- either = any of two; + an affirmative singular verb: Would you like either of these?
- either + negative verb can replace neither + affirmative: I haven’t read either of these books.
- neither… nor + affirmative verb is an emphatic way of combining two negatives: He neither wrote nor phoned.
- either… or is used to express alternatives emphatically: You can have either tea or fruit juice. (not both)
Note! Either/neither = the choice from two things/people: Neither of his parents knew what he had done.
- None = for all things: They asked for a reason, but none have been given.
None of you – í³õòî ç âàñ (NOT nobody of you)
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| Indefinite
| SOMEis used:
| ANYis used:
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| -with affirmative verbs: They bought some honey.
-in questions where the answer ‘yes’ is expected:
Did some of you sleep on the floor? (I expect so).
-in offers & requests: Would you like some wine?
- some = unknown: Some idiot broke my window!
| -with negative verbs: I haven’t got any matches.
- with hardly, barely, scarcely (which are almost negatives):
I hardly have any spare time.
- with without when without any = without no:
He crossed the frontier without any difficulty.
- with questions except offers & requests:
Have you got any money?
- after if/whether & in expressions of doubt:
If you need anymore money, please let me know.
- in imperative sentences: Take any book you like.
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