International responsibility

- incured by state in breach of international obligations

- injuring rights or property of another state

- political or civil responsibility

Remedies:

- collective sanctions (severance of diplomatic relations, trade boycotts, cessation of air and sea traffic)

- restitution – reparation for injury, the act of compensating for loss or injury by reverting as far as possible to the position before such injury occurred

(performance of failed obligation, revocation of an unlawful act or abstention from further wrongful conduct)

- indemnity (monetary compensation) – most common form of reparation for all damages

(resulting from wrongful act or omission, including ascertainable lost profits)

- satisfaction: (if there’s no material injury) official regrets and apologies, formal or judicial declaration of the illegality of an act, and punishment of guilty minor officials

Economic sanctions and collective punishment (problems):

- indiscriminate (strike the most vulnerable (children) and innocent)

- offend basic notions of justice

- must be renounced(отменено) in international relations

- targeted military force can be more ethical than harm to civilians

A state’s violation of international law may be justified on the grounds of:

- consent of the State injured (not valid if directed to permitting activities contrary to jus cogens)

- self-defense

- countermeasures in response to an international wrongful act (obligations to refrain from force, reprisals not suspended)

- force majeure (irresistible(непреодолимый) force or unforeseen(непридвиденный) event, beyond the control of the State, making impossible to perform the obligation)

- distress (exceptional circumstances of extreme urgency authorizing(разрешает) breach of obligations)

- state of necessity (condition to safeguard an essential interest against a grave danger