Lecture 4. The system of English phonemes. Сonsonants

1. The differentiation of consonants according to the sort of articulatory posture, production of noise.

2. The place of articulation.

3. Voiced – voiceless characteristics.

4. The position of the soft palate.

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Each sound is known to have three aspects: acoustic, articulatory and auditory and therefore can be studied on these three levels. For the sake of analysis each aspect can be considered and described independently though we should take it reasonably obvious that there is no sharp dividing line between them.

On the articulatory level each consonant may be identified by stating two general facts about it:

1) what sort of articulatory posture it is formed by;

2) whereabout in the mouth (or pharynx) it is produced.

Phonological description of sounds will be made in terms of the articulatory level.

As to the classification of English consonants there are few ways of seeing the situation. According to V.A. Vassilyev primary importance should be given to the type of obstruction and the manner of production of noise. On this ground he distinguishes two large classes of consonants:

a) occlusive, in the production of which a complete obstruction is formed;

b) constrictive, in the production of which an incomplete obstruction is formed. (e.g. oppositions: [ti:] – [si:] occlusive – constrictive

[pul] – [ful] occ. – cons.)

Each of the two classes is subdivided into noise consonants and sonorants. The division is based on the factor of prevailing either noise or tone component in the auditory characteristic of a sound. In their turn noise consonants are divided into plosive consonants (or stops) and affricates.

Another point of view is shared by a group of Soviet phoneticians. They suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. Such consideration leads to dividing English consonants into two general kinds:

Noise consonants

Sonorants

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The place of articulation is another characteristic of English consonants which should be considered from the phonological point of view. The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. According to this principle the English consonants are classed into:

Labial

Lingual

Glottal

The class of labial consonants is subdivided into: a ) bilabial; b) labio-dental; and among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished; they are: a) forelingual, b) medio-lingual and c) backlingual.

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The next point should be made in connection with another sound property, that is voiced – voiceless characteristic which depends on the work of the vocal cords. The distinction between such pairs of consonants as [p, b], [t, d], [k, g], [s, z], [f, v] is primarily based on energy difference, besides on absence or presence of vibrations of the vocal cords, or on the absence or presence of voice or tone component. All voiced consonants are weak (lenis) and all voiceless consonants are strong (fortis).

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There is one more articulatory characteristic which is usually included into the set of principles on the basis of which the English consonants are classified. That is the position of the soft palate. According to this principle consonants can be oral and nasal. There are relatively few consonantal types in English which require the lowered position of the soft palate. They are the nasal occlusive sonorants [m], [n] and [ŋ]. They differ from oral plosives in that the soft palate is lowered allowing the escape of air into the nasal cavity.

Questions:

1. On which bases do we distinguish consonants?

2. Analyze the phonemes [p], [b], [s], [z].

3. What are the basic modifications of sounds in connected speech? Give your examples (with the analysis).