Essential concepts of decoding stylistic analysis and types of foregrounding

The notion itself was suggested by the scholars of the Prague linguistic circle that was founded in 1926 and existed until early 50s. Among its members were some of the most outstanding linguists of the 20th century. The Prague school introduced into linguistics a functional approach to language. Their central thesis postulated that language is not a rigorous petrified structure but a dynamic functional system. Their views exerted profound influence on stylistic research in areas of functional styles study, the norm and its variations in the national language, as well as the study of poetic language, i.e. the language of literature.

Foregrounding means a specific role that some language items play in a certain context when the reader’s attention cannot but be drawn to them. In a literary text such items become stylistically marked features that build up its stylistic function. It may be based on various types of deviation or redundancy or unexpected combination of language units, etc. Pr. Arnold points out that sometimes the effect of foregrounding can be achieved in a peculiar way by the very absence of any expressive or distinctive features precisely because they are expected in certain types of texts, e.g. the absence of rhythmical arrangement in verse.

Decoding stylistics laid down a few principal methods that ensure the effect of foregrounding in a literary text. Among them we can name convergence of expressive means, irradiation, defeated expectancy, coupling, semantic fields, semi-marked structures.

Convergence denotes a combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same idea, emotion or motive.

An extract from E. Waugh’s novel «Decline and Fall» demonstrates convergence of expressive means used to create an effect of the glamorous appearance of a very colourful lady character who symbolizes the high style of living, beauty and grandeur.

The door opened and from the cushions within emerged a tall young man in a clinging dove-gray coat. After him, like the first breath of spring in the Champs-Elysee came Mrs. Beste-Chetwynde – two lizard-skin feet, silk legs, chinchilla body, a tight little black hat, pinned with platinum and diamonds, and the high invariable voice that may be heard in any Ritz Hotel from New York to Budapest.

Total effect of extravagance and glamour is achieved by the concentrated use of different SDs:

• Inversion
• Simile
• Allusions
• Metonymy
• Choice of words
• Antonomasia

Defeated expectancy is a principle considered by some linguists as the basic principle of a stylistic function. Its use is not limited to some definite level or type of devices. The essence of the notion is connected with the process of decoding by the reader of the literary text. An example from Oscar Wilde’s play «The Importance of Being Earnest» perfectly illustrates how predictability of the structure plays a joke on the speaker who cannot extricate himself from the grip of the syntactical composition:

Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more than any girl... I have met... since I met you. (Wilde)

Defeated expectancy may come up on any level of the language. It may be an unusual word against the background of otherwise lexically homogeneous text. It may be an author’s coinage with an unusual suffix; it may be a case of semantic incongruity or grammatical transposition. Among devices that are based on this principle we can name pun, zeugma, paradox, oxymoron, irony, anti-climax, etc. It may be an author’s coinage with an unusual suffix; it may be a case of semantic incongruity or grammatical transposition. Among devices that are based on this principle we can name pun, zeugma, paradox, oxymoron, irony, anti-climax, etc.

Oscar Wilde, a master of paradox, introduces an unexpected element and the phrase acquires an inverted implication: Marriages are made in Heaven - Divorces are made in Heaven.

Coupling is another technique that helps in decoding the message implied in a literary work. The notion of coupling was introduced by S. Levin in his work «Linguistic Structures in Poetry» in 1962.

Semantic coupling is demonstrated by the use of synonyms and antonyms, both direct and contextual, root repetition, paraphrase, sustained metaphor, semantic fields, recurrence of images, connotations or symbols. An illustration of the coupling technique is given below in the passage from John O’Hara’s novel Ten North Frederick. The main organizing principle here is contrast.

Lloyd Williams lived in Collieryville, a mining town three or four miles from 10 North Frederick, but separated from the Chapins’ home and their life by the accepted differences of money and prestige; the miners’ poolroom, and the Gibbsville Club; sickening poverty, and four live-in servants for a family of four; The Second Thursdays, and the chicken-and-waffle suppers of the English Lutheran Church. Joe Chapin and Lloyd Williams were courthouse-corridor friends and fellow Republicans, but Joe was a Company man and Lloyd Williams was a Union man who was a Republican because to be anything else in Lantenengo County was futile and foolish. (O’Hara)

The central idea of the passage is to underline the difference between two men who actually represent the class differences between the rich upper class and the lower working class. So the social contrast shown through the details of personal life of the two characters is the message with a generalizing power. This passage shows how coupling can be an effective tool to decode this message. Semantic field is a method of decoding stylistics closely connected with coupling. It identifies lexical elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and compositional cohesion.

Lexical elements of this sort are charged with implications and adherent meanings that establish invisible links throughout the text and create a kind of semantic background so that the work is laced with certain kind of imagery. Lexical ties relevant to this kind of analysis will include synonymous and antonymous relations, morphological derivation, relations of inclusion (various types of hyponymy and entailment), common semes in the denotative or connotative meanings of different words. In the next example we observe the semantic field of a less complicated nature created by more explicit means.

Joe kept saying he did not want a fortieth birthday party. He said he did not like parties — a palpable untruth — and particularly and especially a large party in honor of his reaching forty...

At first there were going to be forty guests hut the invitation list grew larger and the party plans more elaborate, until Arthur said that with so many people they ought to hire an orchestra, and with an orchestra there would be dancing, and with dancing there ought to be a good-size orchestra. The original small dinner became a dinner dance at the Lantenengo Country Club. Invitations were sent to more than three hundred persons... (O’Hara)

Semantic field is a method of decoding stylistics closely connected with coupling. It identifies lexical elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and compositional cohesion. To reveal this sort of cohesion decoding must carefully observe not only lexical and synonymous repetition but semantic affinity which finds expression in cases of lexico-semantic variants, connotations and associations aroused by a specific use or distribution of lexical units, thematic pertinence of seemingly unrelated words.

This type of analysis shows how cohesion is achieved on a less explicit level sometimes called the vertical context. Lexical elements of this sort are charged with implications and adherent meanings that establish invisible links throughout the text and create a kind of semantic background so that the work is laced with certain kind of imagery.

Lexical ties relevant to this kind of analysis will include synonymous and antonymous relations, morphological derivation, relations of inclusion (various types of hyponymy and entailment), common semes in the denotative or connotative meanings of different words.

If a word manifests semantic links with one or more other words in the text it shows thematic relevance and several links of this sort may be considered a semantic field, an illustration of which was offered in the previous example on coupling. Semantic ties in that example (mostly implicit) are based on the adherent and symbolic connotations (Church meals, Club member, live-in servants, Union man, etc.) and create a semantic field specific to the theme and message of this work: the contrast between wealth and poverty, upper class and working class.

In the next example we observe the semantic field of a less complicated nature created by more explicit means.

Joe kept saying he did not want a fortieth birthday party. He said he did not like parties—a palpable untruth—and particularly and especially a large party in honor of his reaching forty.... At first there were going to be forty guests but the invitation list grew larger and the party plans more elaborate, until Arthur said that with so many people they ought to hire an orchestra, and with an orchestra there would be dancing, and with dancing there ought to be a good-size orchestra. The original small dinner became a dinner dance at the Lantenengo Country Club. Invitations were sent to more than three hundred persons... (O'Hara)

The thematic word of the passage is party. It recurs four times in these four sentences. It is obviously related to such words used as its substitutes as dinner and dinner dance which become contextual synonyms within the frame of the central stylistic device of this piece – the climax.

Semantic relations of inclusion by entailment and hyponymy are represented by such words as birthday (party), (party) in honor, (party) plans, invitation (list), guests, people, persons, orchestra, dancing.

The subtheme of the major theme is the scale of the celebra­tion connected with the importance of the date – the main char­acter reached the age of forty considered an important milestone in a man's life and career. So there is a semantic field around the figure forty – its lexical repetition and morphological deriva­tion (forty – forty – fortieth) and the word large amplified through­out by contextual synonyms, morphological derivatives and rela­tions of entailment (large – larger – more – many – good-size – more-three hundred).

Another type of semantic relationship that contributes to the seman­tic field analysis is the use of antonyms and contrastive elements associated with the themes in question: large – small, forty – three hun­dred, small dinner – dinner dance, orchestra – good-sized orchestra, did not like –untruth. The magnitude and importance of the event are further enhanced by the use of synonymous intensifiers particularly and especially.

Semi-marked structures are a variety of defeated expectancy associated with the deviation from the grammatical and lexical norm. It’s an extreme case of defeated expectancy, the unpredictable element is used contrary to the norm so it produces a very strong emphatic impact. In the following lines by G. Baker we observe a semi-marked structure on a grammatical basis:

The stupid heart that will not learn

The everywhere of grief.

The word everywhere is not a noun, but an adverb and cannot be used with an article and a preposition, besides grief is an abstract noun that cannot be used as an object with a noun denoting location. However the lines make sense for the poet and the readers who interpret them as the poetic equivalent of the author's overwhelming feeling of sadness and dejection.

Lexical deviation from the norm usually means breaking the laws of semantic compatibility and lexical valency. Arnold considers semi-marked structures as a part of tropes based on the unexpected or unpredictable relations established between objects and phenomena by the author.

If you had to predict what elements would combine well with such words and expressions as to try one's best to..., to like... or what epithets, you would choose for words like father or movement you would hardly come up with such incompatible combinations that we observe in the following sentences:

She... tried her best to spoil the party. (Erdrich)

Montezuma and Archuleta had recently started a mock-seriousseparatisi movement, seeking to join New Mexico. (Michener)

Would you believe it, that unnatural father wouldn't stump up. (Waugh)|

He liked the ugly little college... (Waugh)

Such combination of lexical units in our normal everyday speech is rare. However in spite of their apparent incongruity semi-marked structures of both types are widely used in literary texts that are full of sophisticated correlations which help to read sense into most unpredictable combinations of lexical units.