Практическое занятии № 15 11 страница

He turned back toward the lights of the ship and peered at his watch. It was time to go in now. Mildred would be waiting for him.

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ ДЛЯ САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ СТУДЕНТОВ ПО ДИСЦИПЛИНЕ «ИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ». ДОЧОСЕРОВСКИЙ ПЕРИОД

THE DAWN OF ENGLISH HISTORY AND LITERATURE

English literature did not begin, as used to be said, with Chaucer. It began far back with the beginnings of the history of the English people on the continent of Europe, before bands of them had settled in the little island which was presently вскоре to become the home of the English race. Let's turn back to the ancient history of the English people to understand their culture and literature.

About three thousand years B. C. many parts of Europe, including the British Isles, were inhabited by a people, who came to be known as the Iberians because some of their descendants are still found in the north of Spain (the Iberian Peninsula). We do not know much about these early people because they lived in Britain long before a word of their history was written, but we can learn something from their skeletons, their weapons and the remains of their dwellings which have been found.

During the period from the 6th to the 3rd century B.C. a people called the Celts spread across Europe from the east to the west. More than one Celtic tribe invaded Britain. From time to time these tribes were attacked and overcome by other Celtic tribes from the Continent. Celtic tribes called the Picts penetrated into the mountains in the North; some Picts as well as tribes of Scots crossed over the Ireland and settled there. Later the Scots returned to the larger island and settled in the North beside the Picts. They came in such large numbers that in time the name Scotland was given to most of the country. Powerful Celtic tribes, the Britons, held most of the country; so the southern half of the island was named Britain after them. Today the words "Briton" and "British" refer to the people of the whole of the British Isles.

The Iberians were unable to fight back the attacks of the Celts who were armed with metal spears, swords, daggers and axes. Most of the Iberians were slain in the conflict; some of them were driven westwards into the mountains of what is now Wales and the others probably mixed with the Celts.

We know more about the Celts than about the earlier inhabitants of the island, because of the written accounts that exist. The Celts did not write down the events themselves. Other peoples who knew them described them in their books. The Greeks were the first to mention the British Isles. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus [ he'rodэtes] is called the Father of History wrote that in the 5th century B.C. the Phoenicians [ fi'niSien] used to come to the British Isles for tin which was used in making bronze. They called the British Isles the Tin Islands.

The earliest writer from whom we have learned much about the country and its inhabitants was Julius Caesar [ 'dЖu:ljэs 'si:zэ], the famous Roman general, statesman and writer. In his Commentaries on the Gallic War, a book written in Latin, Julius Caesar describes the island and the Celts against whom he fought. He tells us that the Celts were tall and fair -skinned, blue - eyed with bright hair made brighter by thick washes слой of chalk. So weighted and stiffened жесткий was the hair that it stood out like a horse's mane. They wore long flowing moustaches but no beards. Сaesar writes that the Celts charged fiercely in the battle. Standing in their chariots, they rushed along the enimy's lines, waving their spears and uttering loud cries and driving the scythes against all who came within reach. Headhunters, they cut the heads off dead foes, hung them round their horses' necks, and then nailed them ti the walls of their houses, as hunters do with wild beasts. They were fond of horses. Celtic wives and daughters wore the the same clothes as their husbands did: tunic of blue, red and green. and they were as capable of violence as he. An historian of the 4th century wrote: " A whole band of foreigners could not manage a single Gaul if he called up his wife...". Still, "husbands have power of life and death over their wives as well as their children." Caesar tells us. In their mode of life the British Celts differed little from the Celtic tribes of the Gauls [go:l] who lived on the Continent. In the 1st century B. C. they lived in tribes, and were ruled by chiefs whom all the tribesmen obeyed. The Celts had no towns; they lived in villages.

The Celts had a strange and terrible religion, called the Religion of the Druids. It seems to have been brought over in very early times from France, anciently called Gaul [go:l]. They worshipped Nature. They imagined the sky, the sun, the moon, the earth and the sea, to be ruled by beings like themselves, but much more powerful. They also believed in many nameless spirits who lived in the rivers, lakes, mountains and thick forests. They sacrificed not only animals, but also human beings to their gods. It is certain that the Druidical ceremonies included the sacrifice of human victims, and even the burning alive, in immense wicker cages, of a number of men and animals together. The Celts believed in another life after death. They were taught by priests called Druids that their souls passed after death from one body to another. The Druids lived near groves of oak trees which were considered to be sacred places. No one was allowed to come near without permission. The Druids were very important and powerful, sometimes more powerful than the chiefs. They built great Temples and altars, open to the sky, fragments of some of which are yet remaining. The Celts believed in Druids' magic power. They believed that the Druids were able to foretell the future and the Druids very often acted as prophets. The tribesmen often called upon the Druids to settle disputes. The druids could give orders to begin a battle or to put down arms and stop fighting. The Druids were also teachers and doctors for they were wiser than the other tribesmen. Wise women were also considered to be very important. There were women prophets, and women warriors who trained young men in arms; some women were made tribal chiefs and called queens. The Druids observed rwo festivals in each year. The former took place in the beginning of may, and was called Beltane or "fire of God". On this occasion a large fire was kindled on some elevated spot, in honour of the sun, whose returning beneficence [bi'nefisэns] благодеяния they thus welcomed after the gloom and desolation of winter. The other great festival of Druids was called "Samh' in", or "fire of peace", and was held on Hallowe'en (the eve of the first of Novermber), which still retains this designation(предназначение) in Scotland. On this occasion the Druids assembled in solemn conclave ['konkleiv] тайное совещание, in the most central part of the district. All questions, whether public or private, all crimes against person or property, were at this time brought before them for adjudication [э'dZudikeiSn] cудилище. With these judicial acts were combined certain superstitious usages, especially the kindling ['kindliN] разжигание of the sacred fire, from which all the fires in the district, which had been beforehand scrupulously['skru:pjulэsli] тщательно extinguished [iks'tiNgwiS] гасить, might be relighted This usage of kindling fires on Hallowe'en lingered['liNgэ] тянуться in the British islands long after the establishment of Christianity. The Bards were an essential part of the Druidical hierarchy ['haiэra:ki]иерархия. Thomas Pennant - (1726 -1798) [4] says: "The Bards were supposed to be endowed with powers equal to inspiration. They were the oral historians of all transactions, public and private. They were also accomplished (превосходный) genealogists". Pennant gives a minute [mai'nju:t] подробный account of Eisteddfodau or sessions of the Bards and minstrels, which were held in wales for many centuries, long after the Druidical priesthood in its other departments became extinct (угасать). At these meetings none but Bards of merit were suffered(испытывать) to rehearse their pieces, and minstrels of skill to perform. Judges were appointed to decide on their respective abilities, and suitable degrees were conferrred. In the earlier period the judges were appointed by the Welsh princes, and after the after the conquest of Wales by commission from the kings of England. Yet the tradition is that Edward I, in revenge for the influence of the Bards in animating (воодушевлять) the resistance of the people to his sway(правление), persecuted them with great cruelty.

Like all the ancient peoples the Celts made up many legends about their gods and heroes. The legends were passed down from generation to generation. They were written down in the Middle Ages but they describe far older times when the tribal way of life predominated among the Celts. The chroniclers and writers translated the Celtic legends into Modern English and called them the "Celtic Sagas" ['sa:gэs].

The heroes of the Sagas and their adventures were imaginary. However, they give an idea of the Celts' way of life, occupations, tools, weapons, customs and religion.

The greatest hero of the Celtic heroic sagas was Cuchulainn[ 'ku:kulin]. The legends tell us that he lived in Ireland which was divided among several tribes. The tribes that lived in Ulster ['яlstэ] were ruled by the legendary King Conchobar

['kont Sэ ba:]. Many warriors gathered around the King of Ulster and there was none among them who was not a hero. Their exploits were those of giants. With one stroke of their favourite swords they beheaded hills for sport. When they sat down to meat, they devoured whole oxen. The gods themselves could hardly do better than the heroes of Ulster. But Cuchulainn was the greatest champion of them all. He was a demigod. When he was at the zenith of his strength, no one could look him in the face without blinking. The heat of his body melted the snow around him even thirty feet away. He turned red and hissed as he dipped his body into the sea. Cuchulainn was invincible in battle like Achilles [ э 'kil:z] and Heracles [ 'herэkli:z], two Greek heros.

While still a child, Cuchulainn's actions were already superhuman. Here is what the saga says about his childhood. "One day Cuchulainn played not far from the place where Cathbad [ 'kЙcbэd] the druid was instructing his class of older pupils. One of the pupils asked the druid whether he had anything special to say about the day. The druid replied:

"He who first takes arms this day shall be great and famous in arms above all of Ireland, and the stories of his deeds will be told for all time."

Cuchulainn overheard the words of the druid and rushed to King Conchobar.

"All good be with you, oh, King," he greeted Conchobar.

"Fine salutation," said the king. "What do you wish, lad?"

"I wish to get arms," replied Cuchulainn.

"Who put such an idea into your head, lad?" asked the king.

"Cathbad the druid," replied the boy.

"If it is on the word of Cathbad you come," said the king, "your wish is granted." And he gave the boy two spears, a sword and a shield.

Cuchulainn took the arms and, testing them, smashed them into small pieces.

"These are not good for me," he said.

Conchobar gave him another sword and spear and shield. These he smashed too. And no arms of all those Conchobar had ready for presentation to young warriors suited Cuchulainn.

The king was amazed at his strength and skill, and in the end took own his royal weapons and gave them to him. These Cuchulainn tested in every way he knew, and they stood the test.

Then Conchobar gave him his own royal horses and chariot.

Cuchulainn tested the chariot and found it good.

So Conchobar sent him out with a charioteer. That evening, Cuchulainn brought back the heads of three champions who had killed many of the warriors of Ulster.

He was then only seven years old." Many exploits were performed by Cuchulainn during his life and they are described in "Celtic Sagas".

In 43 A.D. a Roman invaded Britain and conquered the South - East. The hilly districts in the West were very difficult to subdue, the Celts fought fiercely against the Romans who never managed to become masters of the whole island. From time to time the Picts from the North managed to raid the Roman section of the island, burn their villages, and drive off their cattle and sheep. The largest revolt took place about 60 A.D. The Celtic queen Boudica [bou'dikэ] or Boadicea [boudi'siэ] tried to resist Roman rule. Boudica's husband was the chief of a Celtic tribe (Iceni [ai'seni]). When he died the Romans began to mistreat his family though at death he left his wealth to them. Boudica who became the Queen of Iceni decided to lead the local tribes in an uprising against the Romans. She was very tall and look terrifying with a glint in her eyes and harsh voice. A great mass of red hair hung down to her hips. Her warriors destroyed London, Colchester['koultSistэ] and St. Albans. They killed many Romans and their allies. London was reduced to ashes and seventy thousand Romans massacred ['mEsэkэ]peзать. At first she had the Romans on the run (не давать остановиться), but then the Romans, being outnumbered, defeated her. She killed herself by taking poison so that the enemies could not capture her. So the Romans managed to crash this revolt. She died in 60 A.D.

To defend their province the Romans stationed their legions in Britain. The Roman occupation of Britain lasted nearly 400 years, it came to an end in the early 5th century A. D. As a result of this conquest, signs of Roman civilization spread over Britain. There had been no towns in Britain before the Romans conquered it. The civilized Romans were city dwellers, and as soon as they had conquered Britain they began to build towns, splendid villas, public baths, theatres, forums, and schools as in Rome itself. York, Gloucester, Lincoln and London, who became the chief Roman towns sprang up around the Roman military camps. There were also about fifty other small towns. The Roman towns were strongly fortified and they were called castra which means "camps". This word can be recognized in various forms in such names as Chester, Winchester, Manchester, Leicester, Gloucester, Doncaster, Lancaster. Any English town today with a name ending in "chester", "cester" or "caster" was once a Roman camp or city. The names of many modern English towns are also of Latin origin. The town named Lincoln comes from the Latin word colonia which means " colony "; The words which the Romans left behind them in the language of Britain are for the most part names of the things which they taught the Celts. For example, the word street came from the Latin strata which means "road", port from the Latin portus, wall from vallum. London, which had been a small trading settlement before the conquest, now became a trade centre. The town Bath became famous for its hot spring.

Early in the 5 th century (407) the Roman legions were recalled from Britain to defend the central provinces of the Roman Empire from the attacks of the barbarian tribes. They did not return to Britain. So the Celts remained independent, but not for long. The aboriginal Celtic population was soon conquered and almost totally exterminated by the teutonic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes who came from the continent and settled in the island, naming its central part Anglia, or England, i. e. the Land of Angles. The story of invasion is told by the Venerable Bede [bi:d] (673 - 735), a monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England, Ecclesiastical History of English People. To quote Bede, "the newcomers were of the three strongest races of Germany, the Saxons, the Angles and the Jutes".

Few traces of the Celtic language of the ancient Britons are to be found in the English language of today: many rivers, hills and towns are still called by their old Celtic names. Thus in England there are several rivers called Avon, which in Celtic means river. Some rivers have the name Derwent, which in Celtic means clear water. The chalk highlands in the southern and south - eastern parts of England are called "the Downs". This name comes from the Celtic word down which means "bare, open highland."

Anglo - Saxons called the Celts welsh which means f oreigners as they could not understand the Celtic language which was quite unlike their own. But gradually the Celts who were in the minority merged with the conquerors, adopted their customs and learned to speak their languages. Only the Celts who remained independent in the West, Scotland and Ireland spoken their native tongue.

To this day the descendants of the ancient Celts live on the territory of the British Isles. The Welsh who live in Wales are of Celtic origin. People in most parts of Wales speak Welsh, a Celtic tongue. In the Highlands of Scotland as well as in the western parts of Ireland the people speak a tongue of Celtic origin too.

In the pre - christian times Anglo - Saxons had no written language of their own. The earliest written records of English are inscriptions on hard material made in a special alphabet known as runes. The word rune originally meant secret, mystery and hence came to denote inscriptions believed to be magic. There is no doubt that the art of runic writing was known to be Germanic tribes long before they came to Britain, since runic inscriptions have also been found in Scandinavia. The runes were used as letters, each indicating a separate sound. The runic alphabet is specifically Germanic, not to be found in languages of the other groups. Neither on the mainland nor in Britain were runes used by everybody for writing or for putting down poetry and prose. Their main function was to make short inscriptions on objects, often to bestow up on them some special power or magic. Written Anglo - Saxon developed later on the basis of the Latin alphabet.

As a result of this conquest the Anglo - Saxons made up the majority of the population in Britain and their customs, religion and language became predominant. They had been pagans, as they believed in many gods. They worshipped the sun and moon, sea, spring and trees, and other pagans gods. One of their gods was Tu, or Tuesco - the god of Darkness. Another was Wooden - the great god of war. The red - bearded Thor was the god of Thunder. The Anglo - Saxons thought that they heard his magic hammer in the thunderclap. Freya was the goddess of Peace and Plenty. The Anglo - Saxons named the days of the week after their gods. Thus Sunday meant the Sun's day, Monday - the Moon's day, Tuesday - the day of the god Tuesco; Wednesday was Woden's day, Thursday was Thor's day and Friday - Freya's day; Saturday was named after Saturn, a Roman God.

The early Anglo - Saxons' poetry often told of events which took place on the continent. Their songs and epics were kept in the memory of the common people. It is due only to this that gems of ancient Anglo - Saxon poetry were preserved, for in the pre- christian times the Anglo - Saxons had no written language of their own.

Among the early Anglo -Saxon poems we may mention "The Song of Beowulf" ['beiowulf]. "The Song of Beowulf" can be justly termed England's national epic and its hero Beowulf - one of the national heroes of the English people.

The only existing manuscript of "The Song of Beowulf" was written by unknown scribe at the beginning of the 10th century and was not discovered until 1705. The manuscript is in the British Museum, in London. It is impossible for a non - specialist to read it in its original, so the text is in the English translation. The scene is set among the Jutes who lived in the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula approximately at the beginning of the 6th century, and the Danes, their neighbours across the strait. The Danes and the Jutes were great sailors. It shows us these warriors in battle and in peace, their feasts and amusements, their love for the sea and adventures. It tells with rude vigour mighty feats of the hero whose name it bears.

The story of the Song opens with a description of the reign of the Danish king Hrothgar ['hroucga:] who, after he had won many victories in battles and gathered vast treasures, decided to build a large feast - hall where he could give feasts and distribute rewards among his kingsmen and warriors. The Hall was built and, having been decorated with the antlers of stags, was called Heorot ['heorot], or the Stag - Hall. But soon Heorot was deserted by Hrothgar and his hearth-companions. Attracted by the noise and din of the feasts, a huge sea-monster who lived in the neighbouring swamps and whose name was Grendel ['grendl] the Man-Eater, regularly appeared in Heorot at night - time, killed and devoured some of Hrothgar's warriors and then returned to his lair. In appearance he was like a man, but twice as tall and covered with such thick hair that no sword, spear or arrow could pierce it. There was no one in Denmark who could confront and conquer this terrible monster.

The news of the disaster that had befallen the Danes reached the ears of Beowulf, a young and mighty warrior of the Geats (Jutes). Though he was a nephew of Hygelac

[hidЖэ' la:k], the king of Geats, he did not seek power or riches. His only desire was to serve the people and to win the fame which the common people reward their champions with. He immediately sailed forth in his boat with a small band of warriors and hastened to Denmark. A coast- guard met Beowulf's ship and, having assured himself that the strangers meant no harm, conducted them to Hrothgar's stronghold. Hrothgar had heard of Beowulf's deeds and of his strength that equalled the strength of thirty warriors, and so gladly welcomed Beowulf and his warriors.The banquet was given in honour of Beowulf. When the banquet was over, Hrothgar and his men left Beowulf' band in Heorot to wait for Grendel. Beowulf, who has learnt that the monster always comes unarmed, tells his warriors he is going to fight Grendel on fair terms and will meet him also unarmed. Full of care for his followers, he tells them to lie down and sleep while he himself keeps watch over them. In the dead of night the monster breaks through the bolted door and, before Beowulf could interfere, killes the warrior who was nearmost. Then Beowulf closes in grapple with Grendel. Feeling himself caught in such a mighty grip that could strangle the life out of him, Grendel loses his courage and tries to escape. The struggle is so furious that the walls of the hall shake. At last Grendel wrenches himself from Beowulf' grip, but he leaves his arms, torn off at the shoulder sockets, in the hands of the great champion. Grendel escapes and crawls off to his lair [leэ] to die.

The next day a new feast is given to celebrate Beowulf's victory. Beowulf leaves Heorot early to take a night's rest. While he is asleep, Grendel's mother, Water-Witch, comes to the hall to avenge her son and kills one of the worriors. Again Hrothgar appeals to Beowulf who resolves to free Denmark from this terrible fiend. At dawn Beowulf and his band, accompanied by Hrothgar and his followers, set out over stony hills and swampy marshes to the monster's lair. Amid the rocks they find a stagnant pool, frothing with blood, teeming with sea-serpents and livid with a flame issuing from beneath the surface. Leaving his companions on the bank, Beowulf, in full armour and sword in hand, plunges into the pool. Down, down, down he goes, and at the end of an hour reaches the bottom where the sea-hag attacks him. The sword, given to him by Unferth, fails him - it seems to have no power against the witch. He is in imminent peril, but he continues to fight.

At last when, still fighting, they roll into the hall of the monster's castle, Beowulf sees a huge sword hanging on the wall. This is a magic sword forgotten by the ancient Giants. He seizes the weapon and kills the witch. Then he finds Grendel's dead body and cut off the moster's head to bring it back as a token of his victory.

Eight hours have passed since he plunged into the dreadful pool. Giving him up for dead, Hrothgar and his followers return home, and only Beowulf's warriors still wait for him. At last their faith is rewarded: Beowulf emerges to the surface holding Grendel's head by the hair. After a short rest the brave Geats return to Hrothgar's castle where they are met with great joy. Hrothgar heaps valuable gifts on Beowulf and his warriors, but of these Beowulf takes nothing for himself. He brings his share to Jutland and gives all the treasures to Hygelac.

Part II

After Hygelac's death, Beowulf is elected king by the people of Jutland. For fifty years he rules in the country, and throughout his reign the people enjoy peace and prosperity.

But at the end of this fifty years a great disaster befalls the country. In the mountains, near the sea, there lives a terrible dragon. This firedrake guards an enchanted cave where an enormous treasure is hidden.

One day a traveller, passing over the mountain - side, discovers the cave by chance, and as the firedrake is asleep at that moment, he managed to get into the cave and escape unhurt, taking away with him a jewelled cup. After the dragon discovers the theft, he rushes down upon the neighbouring villages and revenges himself by destroying and killing all of the dwellers. The people flee in terror to their beloved king and protector. The old champion decides that it is his duty to free his country from this new infliction. He puts on his armour, and takes an iron shield to protect himself against the flames breathed out by the dragon.

He allows only one worrior, whose name is Wiglaf ['wiglэf], to follow him to the dragon's cave. When they approach the cave, the dragon attacts Beowulf, belching forth fire and smoke. Wiglaf stands aside waiting for his turn. The encounter is terrible to look upon. At first Wiglaf sees little because Beowulf is wrapped in heavy smoke and flames. Then Wiglaf sees the monster with two of his three heads struck off. The dragon is swinging his terrible tail, aiming to strike at Beowulf from behind while his last head is still breathing fire into Beowulf' s face. Wiglaf rushes to the rescue and with a mighty sweep of his sword cuts off the monster's tail. At the same moment Beowulf deals his last blow. The dragon is slain.

But Beowulf himself is dying, too, for the fire has entered his lungs. Beowulf knows that death is at hand. He sends Wiglaf into the cave where the young worrior finds rare treasures and among them a golden banner which issues bright light. Wiglaf fills his hands with jewels and brings them to Beowulf. The dying hero is glad that by his death he has gained more wealth for his people. He instructs Wiglaf, who is to succeed him, how to bury his body and how to rule the country after his death. His last words are full of care for the future of his land.

According to Beowulf' s last will, the people of Jutland build a large bonfire on a headland which stretches far into the sea and cremate the hero's body. Then they lay all the treasures from the dragon's cave with Beowulf's ashes to show that the gold can in no way compensate their great loss, and bury them under a tremendous mound. They pile the earth and stones so high that, in accordance with Beowulf's will, the mound thereafter becomes a beacon for the seafarers who sail along the coast. Thus, even after his death, Beowulf continues to serve the people.

The whole epic consists of 3182 lines and is to be divided into two parts with an interpolation between the two. The whole Song is essentially pagan in spirit and manner, while the interpolation is obviously an addition made by the Christian scribe who copied the Song. Other elements alien to the original text of the epic, can be easily traced in the text of the manuscript and do not thwart the style of the whole. The Song is written in alliterated verse: that is, the regular and emphatic repetition of the same letter; Alliteration makes Anglo - Saxon poetry highly musical in sound and practically acts the same part which rhyme takes in later poetry. Even today the English poetry shows a greater propensity склонность towards alliteration, than, probably, any other poetry in Europe. Here is an example of alliterated verse from Beowulf:

G rendel g ongan, G odes yrre baer

(Grendel going God's anger bore).

Another peculiar feature characteristic of the style of the Song is the wide use of double metaphors, which poetically disclose the meaning of one single word through a compound simile consisting of two elements (usually a noun with an attribute); thus, in the Song of Beowulf the sun is called "the world's great candel", the double metaphors of "brain - biter", "life - destroyer" are substituted for the commonplace "sword"; instead of the word "harp" the writer uses a metaphoric "wood- -of - delight" and so on.