Текст № 12. Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features:

Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features:

• The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant is made. Manners include plosives, fricatives, and nasals.

• The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate). In addition, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation or pharyngealisation.

• The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it is voiceless.

• The airstream mechanism is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages use the lungs and diaphragm, but ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.

• The length is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in "wholly" [hoʊlli] vs. "holy" [hoʊli], but cases are limited to morpheme boundaries. Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages such as Italian, Japanese, and Finnish, with two length levels, "single" and "geminate". Estonian and some Sami languages have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental features.

• The articulatory force is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.

All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as "voiceless alveolar plosive" [t]. In this case, the airstream mechanism is omitted.

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Тема 4. Морфология